Lecture 1 Bio Kalamoon University PDF

 Biology BITS1001  First semester 2024 - 2025  University of Kalamoon Dr. Abdulkarim Dakah ‫الدكتٌر عبد الكزيم دقو‬ 1 Reference: Campb...

 Biology BITS1001  First semester 2024 - 2025  University of Kalamoon Dr. Abdulkarim Dakah ‫الدكتٌر عبد الكزيم دقو‬ 1 Reference: Campbell Biology Biology BITC 1001 3 credit hours weekly (2 hours theory + 2 hours practical) = 3 credit hours  Total mark is 100  Theory:  Practical : First test 10 ‫ٔؾبه‬ٚ ُ١١‫رم‬10 = 50 ‫ٔؾبه‬ٚ ُ١١‫رم‬10 ‫أػّبي‬ Second test 10 ‫اٌغٕخ‬ ٟ‫بئ‬ٙٔ ٍّٟ‫ اِزؾبْ ػ‬10 Final theory exam 50 2  ‫اٌغ‪١‬بة ػٓ ِؾبمشح إٌظش‪%4 ٞ‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪ ‬اٌغ‪١‬بة ػٓ عٍغخ اٌؼٍّ‪%2 ٟ‬‬ ‫‪٠‬ؾشَ اٌطبٌت ِٓ اٌّبدح ارا ‪ٚ‬فً ِغّ‪ٛ‬ع غ‪١‬بثبرٗ ‪ِٚ %15‬بف‪ٛ‬ق‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪٠‬ؾشَ اٌطبٌت ف‪ ٟ‬ؽبي ؽق‪ ٌٗٛ‬ػٍ‪ ٝ‬ػالِخ ألً ِٓ ‪ %25‬ف‪ٟ‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫أػّبي اٌغٕخ ا‪ ٞ‬ألً ِٓ ‪12.5‬ػالِخ ِٓ ‪50‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ 4 Evolution, the Themes of Biology and Scientific Inquiry ٍّٟ‫اٌجؾش اٌؼ‬ٚ ‫بء‬١‫ ػٍُ األؽ‬ٟ‫ػبد ف‬ٛ‫م‬ِٛ ،‫س‬ٛ‫اٌزط‬ :‫خ‬١‫ُ األعبع‬١٘‫اٌّفب‬ )‫غ‬١‫ام‬ِٛ 5( ‫غ ِؾزشوخ‬١‫ام‬ِٛ ٓ‫بح ػ‬١‫ رىؾف دساعخ اٌؾ‬1-1.‫ب‬ٙ‫ػ‬ٕٛ‫ر‬ٚ ‫بح‬١‫ؽذح اٌؾ‬ٚ ‫فغش‬٠ ‫س‬ٛ‫ اٌزط‬:ٟ‫ع األعبع‬ٛ‫م‬ٌّٛ‫ ا‬2-1 ً١‫رؾى‬ٚ ‫َ اٌؼٍّبء ثاعشاء اٌّالؽظبد‬ٛ‫م‬٠ ،‫ؼخ‬١‫ دساعخ اٌطج‬ٟ‫ ف‬3-1.‫اخزجبس٘ب‬ٚ ‫بد‬١‫اٌفشم‬.‫ػخ‬ٕٛ‫بد إٌظش اٌّز‬ٙ‫ع‬ٚٚ ٟٔٚ‫ظ اٌزؼب‬ٌٕٙ‫ذ اٌؼٍُ ِٓ ا‬١‫غزف‬٠ 4-1 Key Concepts 1.1 The study of life reveals common themes (5 themes). 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life. 1.3 In studying nature, scientists make observations and form and test hypotheses. 1.4 Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints. 5 Dr. Abdulkarim Dakah, University of Kalamoon Overview: Inquiring About Life Biology: is the scientific study of life. The dandelions send their seeds up for dispersal. A seed is an embryo surrounded by a store of food and a protective coat. seeds are borne on the wind by parachute-like structures made from modified flower parts. seeds are carry to new locations where conditions are suitable for growth. An organism’s adaptations to its environment, such as the dandelion seed’s parachute, are the result of evolution. Evolution is the process of change that has transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity of organisms living today. Seeds of dandelions ‫بذًر اليندباء‬ 6  ‫ٔظشح ػبِخ‪ :‬اعزفغبس ػٓ اٌؾ‪١‬بح‬ ‫‪ ‬ػٍُ األؽ‪١‬بء‪ ٛ٘ :‬اٌذساعخ اٌؼٍّ‪١‬خ ٌٍؾ‪١‬بح‪.‬‬ ‫‪ ‬رٕزؾش ثز‪ٚ‬س اٌ‪ٕٙ‬ذثبء ئٌ‪ ٝ‬األػٍ‪.ٝ‬‬ ‫‪ ‬اٌجزسح ػجبسح ػٓ عٕ‪ِ ٓ١‬ؾبه ثّخض‪ ِٓ ْٚ‬اٌغزاء ‪ٚ‬هجمخ ‪ٚ‬ال‪١‬خ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ُ ‬رؾًّ اٌجز‪ٚ‬س ػٓ هش‪٠‬ك اٌش‪٠‬بػ ث‪ٛ‬عبهخ ٘‪١‬بوً رؾجٗ اٌّظالد رؾىٍذ ِٓ‬ ‫أعضاء اٌض٘شح اٌّؼذٌخ‪ُ.‬رؾًّ اٌجز‪ٚ‬س ئٌ‪ِٛ ٝ‬الغ عذ‪٠‬ذح ؽ‪١‬ش رى‪ ْٛ‬اٌظش‪ٚ‬ف‬ ‫ِٕبعجخ ٌٍّٕ‪.ٛ‬‬ ‫‪ ‬ئْ رى‪١‬ف اٌىبئٓ اٌؾ‪ِ ٟ‬غ ث‪١‬ئزٗ‪ِ ،‬ضً ِظٍخ ثز‪ٚ‬س اٌ‪ٕٙ‬ذثبء‪ٔ ٛ٘ ،‬ز‪١‬غخ ٌٍزط‪ٛ‬س‪.‬‬ ‫‪ ‬اٌزط‪ٛ‬س‪ ٛ٘ :‬ػٍّ‪١‬خ اٌزغ‪١١‬ش اٌز‪ ٟ‬ؽ‪ٌٛ‬ذ اٌؾ‪١‬بح ػٍ‪ ٝ‬األسك ِٓ ٔؾأر‪ٙ‬ب األ‪ٌٝٚ‬‬ ‫ئٌ‪ ٝ‬رٕ‪ٛ‬ع وج‪١‬ش ف‪ ٟ‬اٌىبئٕبد اٌؾ‪١‬خ اٌز‪ ٟ‬رؼ‪١‬ؼ اٌ‪.َٛ١‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬  Evolutionary Regulation  Although biologists know a great deal about life adaptation on Earth, but they ask many questions , such Order as:  how a single tiny cell becomes a tree or a dog or any other organism? Reproduction  how the human mind works?  How do living things interact in communities? Energy processing  Many interesting questions probably occur to Response To the you when you are out-of-doors, surrounded by Growth and environment. the natural world. When they do, you are development. already thinking like a biologist. This figures remind us that the living world 8 is wondrously varied ‫تذكزنا ىذه الصٌر أن العالم الحي‬ ‫متنٌع بشكل عجيب‬ ‫ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اٌشغُ ِٓ أْ ػٍّبء األؽ‪١‬بء ‪٠‬ؼشف‪ ْٛ‬اٌىض‪١‬ش ػٓ اٌؾ‪١‬بح ػٍ‪ٝ‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫األسك‪ ،‬ئال أٔ‪٠ ُٙ‬طشؽ‪ ْٛ‬اٌؼذ‪٠‬ذ ِٓ األعئٍخ‪ِ ،‬ضً‪:‬‬ ‫و‪١‬ف رزؾ‪ٛ‬ي خٍ‪١‬خ فغ‪١‬شح ‪ٚ‬اؽذح ئٌ‪ ٝ‬ؽغشح أ‪ ٚ‬أ‪ ٞ‬وبئٓ ؽ‪ ٟ‬آخش؟‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫و‪١‬ف ‪٠‬ؼًّ اٌؼمً اٌجؾش‪ٞ‬؟‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪ ‬و‪١‬ف رزفبػً اٌىبئٕبد اٌؾ‪١‬خ ف‪ ٟ‬اٌّغزّؼبد؟‬ ‫سثّب رخطش ثجبٌه اٌؼذ‪٠‬ذ ِٓ األعئٍخ اٌّض‪١‬شح ٌال٘زّبَ ػٕذِب رى‪ْٛ‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ف‪ ٟ‬اٌ‪ٛٙ‬اء اٌطٍك‪ِ ،‬ؾبهًب ثبٌؼبٌُ اٌطج‪١‬ؼ‪ٚ.ٟ‬ػٕذِب ‪٠‬ؾذس رٌه‪،‬‬ ‫فأٔذ رفىش ثبٌفؼً ِضً ػبٌُ األؽ‪١‬بء‪.‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ 1.1 The study of life reveals common themes. ‫ػبد‬ٛ‫م‬ِٛ ٓ‫بح ػ‬١‫ رىؾف دساعخ اٌؾ‬1.1  There are five unifying themes describe ways.‫ِؾزشوخ‬ of thinking about life that will still hold true decades from now. ‫ؽذح رقف‬ِٛ ‫ػبد‬ٛ‫م‬ِٛ ‫ٕ٘بن خّغخ‬   Theme 1: Organization ً‫ عزظ‬ٟ‫اٌز‬ٚ ‫بح‬١‫ اٌؾ‬ٟ‫ش ف‬١‫هشق اٌزفى‬  Theme 2: Transmission of Genetic.ْ٢‫د ِٓ ا‬ٛ‫ ثؼذ ػم‬ٝ‫ؾخ ؽز‬١‫فؾ‬ Information ُ١‫ اٌزٕظ‬:1 ‫ع‬ٛ‫م‬ٌّٛ‫ا‬   Theme 3: Energy and Matter ‫خ‬١‫ساص‬ٌٛ‫ِبد ا‬ٍٛ‫ ٔمً اٌّؼ‬:2 ‫ع‬ٛ‫م‬ٌّٛ‫ا‬   Theme 4: Interactions in Biological ‫اٌّبدح‬ٚ ‫ اٌطبلخ‬:3 ‫ع‬ٛ‫م‬ٌّٛ‫ا‬  Systems ‫ األٔظّخ‬ٟ‫ اٌزفبػالد ف‬:4 ‫ع‬ٛ‫م‬ٌّٛ‫ا‬   Theme 5: Evolution ‫خ‬١‫ع‬ٌٛٛ١‫اٌج‬ 10 ‫س‬ٛ‫ اٌزط‬:5 ‫ع‬ٛ‫م‬ٌّٛ‫ا‬   Theme 1 : Levels of Biological Organization ٞٛ١‫و اٌؾ‬١‫اٌّؾ‬ ‫ٔغظ‬ ‫خ‬١‫ئ‬١‫أٔظّخ ث‬ ‫أػنبء‬  Life can be studied at different levels, from molecules to entire living planet. ‫ِغزّؼبد‬ ‫ب‬٠‫خال‬ ‫بد‬١‫ػن‬ ٟ‫وبئٓ ؽ‬ 11 ‫عّبػبد‬ ‫ئبد‬٠‫عض‬  Emergent Properties ‫ء‬ٛ‫خقبئـ إٌؾ‬  These emergent properties are due to the arrangement and interactions of parts within a system.  For example: cellular respiration occurs in Mitochondrion, and most ATP is generated. It will not take place in a test-tube mixture of glucose and other mitochondrion molecules. The coordinated processes of cellular respiration require a specific organization of these molecules in the mitochondrion.  Emergent properties are not unique to life. A box of bicycle parts won’t transport you anywhere, but if they are arranged in a certain way, you can bike to 12 your chosen destination.  ‫خقبئـ إٌؾ‪ٛ‬ء‬ ‫رشعغ خقبئـ إٌؾ‪ٛ‬ء ئٌ‪ ٝ‬رشر‪١‬ت ‪ٚ‬رفبػً األعضاء داخً األٔظّخ اٌؾ‪١‬خ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ػٍ‪ ٝ‬عج‪ ً١‬اٌّضبي‪٠ :‬ؾذس اٌزٕفظ اٌخٍ‪ ٞٛ‬ف‪ ٟ‬اٌّ‪١‬ز‪ٛ‬و‪ٔٛ‬ذس‪٠‬ب‪٠ٚ ،‬زُ ئٔزبط‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ِؼظُ ‪٠ ٌٓٚ.ATP‬ؾذس رٌه ف‪ ٟ‬خٍ‪١‬و ِٓ اٌغٍ‪ٛ‬و‪ٛ‬ص ‪ٚ‬عض‪٠‬ئبد‬ ‫اٌّ‪١‬ز‪ٛ‬و‪ٔٛ‬ذس‪٠‬ب األخش‪ ٜ‬ف‪ ٟ‬أٔج‪ٛ‬ة اخزجبس‪.‬رزطٍت اٌؼٍّ‪١‬بد إٌّغمخ‬ ‫ّب ِؾذ ًدا ٌ‪ٙ‬زٖ اٌغض‪٠‬ئبد ف‪ ٟ‬اٌّ‪١‬ز‪ٛ‬و‪ٔٛ‬ذس‪٠‬ب‪.‬‬ ‫ٌٍزٕفظ اٌخٍ‪ ٞٛ‬رٕظ‪ً ١‬‬ ‫خقبئـ إٌؾ‪ٛ‬ء ٌ‪١‬غذ فش‪٠‬ذح ِٓ ٔ‪ٛ‬ػ‪ٙ‬ب ف‪ ٟ‬اٌؾ‪١‬بح‪ٕ٠ ٌٓ ،‬مٍه فٕذ‪ٚ‬ق‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ِٓ أعضاء اٌذساعخ ئٌ‪ ٝ‬أ‪ِ ٞ‬ىبْ‪ٌٚ ،‬ىٓ ئرا رُ رشر‪١‬ج‪ٙ‬ب ثطش‪٠‬مخ ِؼ‪ٕ١‬خ‪،‬‬ ‫ف‪ّ١‬ىٕه سو‪ٛ‬ة اٌذساعخ ئٌ‪ٚ ٝ‬ع‪ٙ‬زه اٌّخزبسح‪.‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬  Compared with such nonliving examples, ‫ش‬١‫ٌىٓ ثبٌّمبسٔخ ِغ ٘زٖ األِضٍخ غ‬ٚ however, biological systems are far more ‫خ أوضش‬١‫ع‬ٌٛٛ١‫ فاْ األٔظّخ اٌج‬،‫خ‬١‫اٌؾ‬ ‫غؼً خقبئـ‬٠ ‫ ِّب‬،‫ش‬١‫ ًذا ثىض‬١‫رؼم‬ complex, making the emergent properties of ً‫بح ثؾىً خبؿ أِشا‬١‫ء ٌٍؾ‬ٛ‫إٌؾ‬ life especially challenging to study..‫فؼجبً ٌٍذساعخ‬ ‫العزىؾبف اٌخقبئـ إٌبؽئخ‬  To explore emergent properties more fully, ‫بء‬١‫ىًّ ػٍّبء األؽ‬٠ ،‫ثؾىً أوضش‬ biologists today complement reductionism ً١ٙ‫رغ‬ٚ ‫و‬١‫خ (رجغ‬١ٌ‫َ االخزضا‬ٛ١ٌ‫ا‬ with systems biology, the exploration of a ٛ٘ٚ ،ُ‫بء إٌظ‬١‫اٌذساعخ) ثؼٍُ أؽ‬ ِٓ ٟ‫ع‬ٌٛٛ١‫اعزىؾبف إٌظبَ اٌج‬ biological system by analyzing the.ٗ‫ٓ أعضائ‬١‫ً اٌزفبػالد ث‬١ٍ‫خالي رؾ‬ interactions among its parts. ُ‫بء إٌظ‬١‫ّىٓ اعزخذاَ ػٍُ أؽ‬٠ ‫غ‬١ّ‫ ع‬ٍٝ‫بح ػ‬١‫ٌذساعخ اٌؾ‬  Systems biology can be used to study life at.‫بد‬٠ٛ‫اٌّغز‬ all levels. 14  The Cell: An Organism’s Basic Unit of Structure and Function  All cells share certain characteristics. Every cell is enclosed by a membrane that regulates the passage of materials between the cell and its surroundings. Nevertheless, we recognize two main forms of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.  The cells of two groups of single-celled microorganisms bacteria (singular, bacterium) and archaea (singular, archaean) are prokaryotic. All other forms of life, including plants and animals, are composed of eukaryotic cells.  In contrast to eukaryotic cells, a Prokaryotic cell lacks a nucleus or other membrane-enclosed organelles. Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller than 15 eukaryotic cells. ‫اٌخٍ‪١‬خ‪ :‬اٌ‪ٛ‬ؽذح األعبع‪١‬خ ٌٍجٕ‪١‬خ ‪ٚ‬اٌ‪ٛ‬ظ‪١‬فخ ف‪ٟ‬‬ ‫اٌىبئٓ اٌؾ‪ٟ‬‬ ‫رؾزشن عّ‪١‬غ اٌخال‪٠‬ب ف‪ ٟ‬خقبئـ ِؼ‪ٕ١‬خ‪.‬فىً خٍ‪١‬خ ِؾبهخ ثغؾبء ‪ٕ٠‬ظُ ِش‪ٚ‬س‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫اٌّ‪ٛ‬اد ث‪ ٓ١‬اٌخٍ‪١‬خ ‪ِٚ‬ؾ‪١‬ط‪ٙ‬ب‪ِٚ.‬غ رٌه‪ ،‬فأٗ ‪ٛ٠‬عذ ؽىٍ‪ ٓ١‬سئ‪١‬غ‪ٌٍ ٓ١١‬خال‪٠‬ب‪:‬‬ ‫هالئؼ‪١‬بد إٌ‪ٛ‬اح ‪ٚ‬ؽم‪١‬م‪١‬خ إٌ‪ٛ‬اح‪.‬‬ ‫‪ٛ٠‬عذ ِغّ‪ٛ‬ػز‪ ِٓ ٓ١‬اٌىبئٕبد اٌؾ‪١‬خ اٌذل‪١‬مخ ‪ٚ‬ؽ‪١‬ذح اٌخٍ‪١‬خ‪ ،‬اٌجىز‪١‬ش‪٠‬ب ‪ٚ‬اٌجذائ‪١‬بد‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ِٓ هالئؼ‪١‬بد إٌ‪ٛ‬اح‪ٚ.‬رزى‪ ْٛ‬عّ‪١‬غ أؽىبي اٌؾ‪١‬بح األخش‪ ،ٜ‬ثّب ف‪ ٟ‬رٌه إٌجبربد‬ ‫‪ٚ‬اٌؾ‪ٛ١‬أبد‪ ِٓ ،‬خال‪٠‬ب ؽم‪١‬م‪١‬خ إٌ‪ٛ‬اح‪.‬‬ ‫ػٍ‪ ٝ‬إٌم‪١‬ل ِٓ اٌخال‪٠‬ب ؽم‪١‬م‪١‬خ إٌ‪ٛ‬اح‪ ،‬رفزمذ خٍ‪١‬خ هالئؼ‪١‬بد إٌ‪ٛ‬اح ئٌ‪ٛٔ ٝ‬اح أ‪ٚ‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ّب ِٓ اٌخال‪٠‬ب‬ ‫ػن‪١‬بد أخش‪ِ ٜ‬ؾبهخ ثغؾبء‪.‬رى‪ ْٛ‬خال‪٠‬ب هالئؼ‪١‬بد إٌ‪ٛ‬اح أفغش ؽغ ً‬ ‫ؽم‪١‬م‪١‬خ إٌ‪ٛ‬اح ثؾىً ػبَ‪.‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ Theme 2: Life’s Processes Involve the Expression and Transmission of Genetic Information  Within cells, structures called chromosomes contain genetic material in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). A lung cell divides into two smaller cells that will 17 grow and divide again. DNA, the Genetic Material  Each time a cell divides, the DNA is first replicated, or copied, and each cell inherits a complete set of chromosomes, identical to that of the parent cell.  Each chromosome contains one very long DNA molecule with hundreds or thousands of genes.  genes are the units of inheritance.  They encode the information necessary to build all of the molecules which are synthesized within a cell, which in turn establish that cell’s identity and function. 18 ‫ف‪ ٟ‬وً ِشح رٕمغُ ف‪ٙ١‬ب اٌخٍ‪١‬خ‪٠ ،‬زُ أ‪ٚ‬ال ً ِنبػفخ اٌؾّل إٌ‪ ٞٚٛ‬أ‪ٔ ٚ‬غخٗ‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪ٚ‬رشس وً خٍ‪١‬خ ِغّ‪ٛ‬ػخ وبٍِخ ِٓ اٌىش‪ِٛٚ‬ع‪ِٛ‬بد‪ِ ،‬طبثمخ ٌزٍه اٌّ‪ٛ‬ع‪ٛ‬دح ف‪ٟ‬‬ ‫اٌخٍ‪١‬خ األَ‪.‬‬ ‫‪٠‬ؾز‪ ٞٛ‬وً وش‪ِٛٚ‬ع‪ َٛ‬ػٍ‪ ٝ‬عض‪ٞ‬ء ‪ DNA‬ه‪ ً٠ٛ‬ع ًذا ‪٠‬ؾز‪ ٞٛ‬ػٍ‪ِ ٝ‬ئبد أ‪ ٚ‬آالف‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫اٌغ‪ٕ١‬بد‪.‬‬ ‫اٌغ‪ٕ١‬بد ٘‪ٚ ٟ‬ؽذاد اٌ‪ٛ‬ساصخ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫رؾفش اٌّؼٍ‪ِٛ‬بد اٌالصِخ ٌجٕبء عّ‪١‬غ اٌغض‪٠‬ئبد اٌز‪٠ ٟ‬زُ رقٕ‪١‬ؼ‪ٙ‬ب داخً اٌخٍ‪١‬خ‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪ٚ‬اٌز‪ ٟ‬ثذ‪ٚ‬س٘ب رؾذد ٘‪٠ٛ‬خ رٍه اٌخٍ‪١‬خ ‪ٚٚ‬ظ‪١‬فز‪ٙ‬ب‪.‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬   The molecular structure of DNA accounts for its ability to store information.  A DNA molecule is made up of two long chains, called strands, arranged in a double helix.  Each chain is made up of four kinds of chemical building blocks called nucleotides, abbreviated A, T, C, and G ٗ‫ٌخ ػٓ لذسر‬ٚ‫ ِغإ‬ٌٕٞٚٛ‫خ ٌٍؾّل ا‬١‫ئ‬٠‫خ اٌغض‬١ٕ‫ئْ اٌج‬.‫ِبد‬ٍٛ‫ٓ اٌّؼ‬٠‫ رخض‬ٍٝ‫ػ‬ ،ٓ١‫ٍز‬٠ٛ‫ٓ ه‬١‫ ِٓ عٍغٍز‬ٌٕٞٚٛ‫ء اٌؾّل ا‬ٞ‫ْ عض‬ٛ‫زى‬٠.‫ط‬ٚ‫ْ ِضد‬ٚ‫ ؽىً ؽٍض‬ٟ‫ ِشرجخ ف‬،‫ه‬ٛ١‫ اٌخ‬ّٝ‫رغ‬ ‫خ‬١‫بئ‬١ّ١‫اع ِٓ اٌىزً اٌى‬ٛٔ‫ْ وً عٍغٍخ ِٓ أسثؼخ أ‬ٛ‫رزى‬ ‫زُ اخزقبس٘ب‬٠ ٟ‫اٌز‬ٚ ،‫ذاد‬١‫ر‬ٛ١ٍ‫و‬ٛ١ٌٕ‫ ا‬ّٝ‫خ رغ‬١‫اٌجٕبئ‬ G ،C ،T ،A ٌٝ‫ئ‬ 20  Genes control protein production indirectly, using a related molecule ‫ش‬١‫ٓ ثؾىً غ‬١‫ر‬ٚ‫ ئٔزبط اٌجش‬ٟ‫ٕبد ف‬١‫رزؾىُ اٌغ‬ called RNA as an intermediary. ّٝ‫غ‬٠ ‫ فٍخ‬ٞ‫ء ر‬ٞ‫ ثبعزخذاَ عض‬،‫ِجبؽش‬.‫و‬١‫ع‬ٛ‫ و‬RNA  DNA is transcribed into RNA then ٌٝ‫ صُ رشعّزٗ ئ‬RNA ٌٝ‫ ئ‬DNA ‫زُ ٔغخ‬٠ translated into a protein.ٓ١‫ر‬ٚ‫ثش‬  Gene expression is the process of ‫ِبد‬ٍٛ‫ً اٌّؼ‬٠ٛ‫خ رؾ‬١ٍّ‫ ػ‬ٛ٘ ٟٕ١‫ش اٌغ‬١‫اٌزؼج‬.)ً ‫ٓ ِضال‬١‫ر‬ٚ‫ (ثش‬ٍٞٛ‫ ِٕزظ خ‬ٌٝ‫ٓ ئ‬١‫ِٓ اٌغ‬ converting information from gene to cellular product 21 22 Genomics: Large-Scale Analysis of DNA Sequences ٌٕٞٚٛ‫اعغ إٌطبق ٌزغٍغالد اٌؾّل ا‬ٚ ً١ٍ‫ رؾ‬:َٕٛ١‫ػٍُ اٌغ‬  The entire ―library‖ of genetic instructions that an ‫ب‬ٙ‫شص‬٠ ٟ‫خ اٌز‬١ٕ١‫ّبد اٌغ‬١ٍ‫ئْ "اٌّىزجخ" اٌىبٍِخ ٌٍزؼ‬ organism inherits is called its genome..َٕٛ١‫ اٌغ‬ّٝ‫ رغ‬ٟ‫اٌىبئٓ اٌؾ‬  A typical human cell has two similar sets of ٍٝ‫خ ػ‬١‫رع‬ٌّٕٛ‫خ ا‬٠‫خ اٌجؾش‬١ٍ‫ اٌخ‬ٞٛ‫رؾز‬ ،‫ِبد‬ٛ‫ع‬ِٛٚ‫ٓ ِٓ اٌىش‬١‫ز‬ٙ‫ٓ ِزؾبث‬١‫ػز‬ّٛ‫ِغ‬ chromosomes, and each set has approximately 3 ‫بساد‬١ٍِ 3 ِٓ ‫مشة‬٠ ‫ ِب‬ٍٝ‫ػخ ػ‬ّٛ‫ وً ِغ‬ٞٛ‫رؾز‬ٚ billion nucleotide pairs of DNA. If the one-letter ‫ئرا‬ٚ.ٌٕٞٚٛ‫ اٌؾّل ا‬ٟ‫ذاد ف‬١‫ر‬ٛ١ٍ‫و‬ٛ١ٌٕ‫ط ِٓ ا‬ٚ‫ص‬ abbreviations for the nucleotides of a set were ‫اؽذ‬ٚ ‫ٔخ ِٓ ؽشف‬ٛ‫رّذ وزبثخ االخزقبساد اٌّى‬ written in letters the size of those you are now ‫ػخ ِب ثأؽشف ثؾغُ رٍه‬ّٛ‫ ِغ‬ٟ‫ذاد ف‬١‫ر‬ٛ١ٍ‫و‬ٛ١ٌٍٕ reading, the genetic text would fill about 700 ‫ّأل‬١‫ ع‬ٟٕ١‫ فاْ إٌـ اٌغ‬،ْ٢‫ رمشأ٘ب ا‬ٟ‫اٌز‬ biology textbooks..‫بء‬١‫ ػٍُ األؽ‬ٟ‫ ف‬ٟ‫ وزبة ِذسع‬700 ٌٟ‫ا‬ٛ‫ؽ‬ ٟ‫ذاد ف‬١‫ر‬ٛ١ٍ‫و‬ٛ١ٌٍٕ ًِ‫أفجؼ اٌزغٍغً اٌىب‬  The entire sequence of nucleotides in the human ‫ عبٔت‬ٌٝ‫ ئ‬، ْ٢‫فبً ا‬ٚ‫ ِؼش‬ٞ‫َ اٌجؾش‬ٕٛ١‫اٌغ‬ genome is now known, along with the genome ‫خ‬١‫ذ ِٓ اٌىبئٕبد اٌؾ‬٠‫َ ٌٍؼذ‬ٕٛ١‫رغٍغالد اٌغ‬ sequences of many other organisms, including ‫ذ‬٠‫اٌؼذ‬ٚ ٜ‫أبد األخش‬ٛ١‫ رٌه اٌؾ‬ٟ‫ ثّب ف‬،ٜ‫األخش‬ other animals and numerous plants, fungi,.‫بد‬١‫اٌجذائ‬ٚ ‫ب‬٠‫ش‬١‫اٌجىز‬ٚ ‫بد‬٠‫اٌفطش‬ٚ ‫ِٓ إٌجبربد‬ bacteria, and archaea. 23 nucleotide, gene, chromosome, genome  Genomics: study whole sets of genes in one or more species.  Proteomics: refers to the study of sets of proteins and their properties. (The entire set of proteins expressed by a given cell or group of cells is called a proteome).  Three important research developments have made the genomic and proteomic approaches possible: 1. One is ―high-throughput‖ technology, tools that can analyze many biological samples very rapidly. (One team recently sequenced a human genome in only five hours and two minutes (Gorzynski et al., 2022). 2. The second major development is bioinformatics, the use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze the huge volume of data that results from high-throughput methods. 3. The third development is the formation of interdisciplinary research teams 24  ‫ػٍُ اٌغ‪ :َٕٛ١‬دساعخ ِغّ‪ٛ‬ػبد وبٍِخ ِٓ اٌغ‪ٕ١‬بد ف‪ٛٔ ٟ‬ع ‪ٚ‬اؽذ أ‪ ٚ‬أوضش‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ػٍُ اٌجش‪ٚ‬ر‪ٕ١‬بد‪٠ :‬ؾ‪١‬ش ئٌ‪ ٝ‬دساعخ ِغّ‪ٛ‬ػبد اٌجش‪ٚ‬ر‪ٕ١‬بد ‪ٚ‬خقبئق‪ٙ‬ب‪(.‬رغّ‪ ٝ‬اٌّغّ‪ٛ‬ػخ‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫اٌىبٍِخ ِٓ اٌجش‪ٚ‬ر‪ٕ١‬بد اٌز‪ ٟ‬رؼجش ػٕ‪ٙ‬ب خٍ‪١‬خ ِؼ‪ٕ١‬خ أ‪ِ ٚ‬غّ‪ٛ‬ػخ ِٓ اٌخال‪٠‬ب ثبٌجش‪ٚ‬ر‪.)َٛ‬‬ ‫ٌمذ أدد صالصخ رط‪ٛ‬ساد ثؾض‪١‬خ ِ‪ّٙ‬خ ئٌ‪ ٝ‬ئِىبٔ‪١‬خ ارجبع إٌ‪ٙ‬ظ اٌغ‪ٚ ِٟٕٛ١‬اٌجش‪ٚ‬ر‪:ٟٕ١‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫أؽذ٘ب ٘‪ ٛ‬رىٕ‪ٌٛٛ‬ع‪١‬ب "اإلٔزبع‪١‬خ اٌؼبٌ‪١‬خ"‪ ٟ٘ٚ ،‬أد‪ٚ‬اد ‪ّ٠‬ىٕ‪ٙ‬ب رؾٍ‪ ً١‬اٌؼذ‪٠‬ذ ِٓ اٌؼ‪ٕ١‬بد‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫اٌج‪ٌٛٛ١‬ع‪١‬خ ثغشػخ وج‪١‬شح‪(.‬لبَ فش‪٠‬ك ِإخ ًشا ثزغٍغً ع‪ َٕٛ١‬ثؾش‪ ٞ‬ف‪ ٟ‬خّظ عبػبد‬ ‫‪ٚ‬دل‪١‬مز‪ ٓ١‬فمو )‪(Gorzynski et al., 2022‬‬ ‫اٌزط‪ٛ‬س اٌشئ‪١‬غ‪ ٟ‬اٌضبٔ‪ ٛ٘ ٟ‬ػٍُ اٌّؼٍ‪ِٛ‬بر‪١‬خ اٌؾ‪٠ٛ١‬خ‪ ٛ٘ٚ ،‬اعزخذاَ األد‪ٚ‬اد اٌؾبع‪ٛ‬ث‪١‬خ‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ٌزخض‪ٚ ٓ٠‬رٕظ‪ٚ ُ١‬رؾٍ‪ ً١‬اٌؾغُ اٌ‪ٙ‬بئً ِٓ اٌج‪١‬بٔبد إٌبرغخ ػٓ هشق اإلٔزبع‪١‬خ اٌؼبٌ‪١‬خ‪.‬‬ ‫اٌزط‪ٛ‬س اٌضبٌش ٘‪ ٛ‬رؾى‪ ً١‬فشق ثؾض‪١‬خ ِزؼذدح اٌزخققبد‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪25‬‬ Theme 3: Life Requires the Transfer and Transformation of Energy and Matter  Energy and matter  The input of energy, primarily from the sun, and the transformation of energy from one form to another make life possible.  A plant’s leaves (producers ‫) ُِٕزغبد‬ convert the energy of sunlight to the chemical energy in food molecules, and passed to consumers ‫ٍىبد‬ٙ‫ ُِغز‬.  Consumers are organisms, such as animals, that feed on producers and other consumers. 26  When an organism uses chemical energy to perform work, such as muscle contraction or cell division, ‫خ ألداء‬١‫بئ‬١ّ١‫ اٌطبلخ اٌى‬ٟ‫غزخذَ اٌىبئٓ اٌؾ‬٠ ‫ػٕذِب‬ some of that energy is lost to the ،‫ب‬٠‫ أمغبَ اٌخال‬ٚ‫ ِضً أمجبك اٌؼنالد أ‬،‫ػًّ ِب‬ ‫طخ‬١‫ئخ اٌّؾ‬١‫ اٌج‬ٟ‫غ ف‬١‫فاْ ثؼل ٘زٖ اٌطبلخ رن‬ surroundings as heat..‫ ؽىً ؽشاسح‬ٍٝ‫ػ‬  Chemicals will be returned to the ‫ك‬٠‫ئخ ػٓ هش‬١‫ اٌج‬ٌٝ‫خ ئ‬١‫بئ‬١ّ١‫اد اٌى‬ٌّٛ‫د ا‬ٛ‫رؼ‬ environment by decomposers, such as ٍٝ‫ رؼًّ ػ‬ٟ‫ اٌز‬،‫بد‬٠‫اٌفطش‬ٚ ‫ب‬٠‫ش‬١‫ ِضً اٌجىز‬،‫اٌّؾٍالد‬ ‫خ‬١‫أعغبَ اٌىبئٕبد اٌؾ‬ٚ ‫ساق‬ٚ‫ب األ‬٠‫ثمب‬ٚ ‫رؾًٍ اٌفنالد‬ bacteria and fungi, that break down ‫خ ِزبؽخ ٌٍٕجبربد‬١‫بئ‬١ّ١‫اد اٌى‬ٌّٛ‫ صُ رقجؼ ا‬.‫زخ‬١ٌّ‫ا‬ waste products, leaf litter, and the.‫سح‬ٚ‫ ئوّبي اٌذ‬ٌٟ‫ثبٌزب‬ٚ ،ٜ‫ب ِشح أخش‬ٙ‫الِزقبف‬ bodies of dead organisms. The chemicals are then available to be taken up by plants again, thereby completing the cycle. 27 Theme 4: From Ecosystems to Molecules, Interactions Are Important in Biological Systems  1- Ecosystems: An Organism’s Interactions with Other Organisms and the Physical Environment Interactions of an African acacia tree with other organisms and the physical environment. 28  2- Molecules: Interactions Within Organisms  Many biological processes can self-regulate through a mechanisms called Feedback.  Negative feedback a loop in which the response reduces the initial stimulus. (The most common form of regulation in living systems) Lower blood glucose does ٖ‫ْ ثبالرغب‬ٛ‫ االعزغبثخ رى‬:)ٟ‫خ (االعزشعبع اٌغٍج‬١‫خ اٌشاعؼخ اٌغٍج‬٠‫اٌزغز‬ not stimulate insulin ‫ذف‬ٌٙ‫ْ ا‬ٛ‫ى‬٠ٚ ٌٗ‫ؼبد‬٠ ٚ‫ ٘زا إٌّجٗ أ‬ٟ‫ٍغ‬٠ ٞ‫ األِش اٌز‬،ٗ‫اٌّؼبوظ ٌٍّٕج‬ secretion ‫خ‬١‫ؼ‬١‫خ اٌطج‬١‫ع‬ٌٛٛ٠‫ض‬١‫دٖ اٌف‬ٚ‫ ؽذ‬ٌٝ‫ش ئ‬١‫ئػبدح اٌّزغ‬ 29  positive feedback, in which an end product speeds up its own production. (less common than processes regulated by negative feedback)  When a blood vessel is damaged, structures in the blood called platelets begin to aggregate at the site. Positive feedback occurs as chemicals released by the platelets attract more platelets. ٟ‫ْ ف‬ٛ‫ االعزغبثخ رى‬:)ٟ‫غبث‬٠‫خ (االعزشعبع اإل‬١‫غبث‬٠‫خ اٌشاعؼخ اإل‬٠‫اٌزغز‬ ‫ذ‬٠‫ ِض‬ٌٝ‫ ئ‬ٞ‫ االعزغبثخ رإد‬،ٍٟ‫ش األف‬١‫ٗ اٌزغ‬١‫ ؽذس ف‬ٞ‫ٔفظ االرغبٖ اٌز‬ 30 ‫االعزغبثخ‬ٚ ‫ش‬١‫ذ ِٓ اٌزغ‬٠‫ِض‬ٚ ٗ١‫ِٓ اٌزٕج‬  Theme 5: Evolution ْ‫َ اٌمبئً ثأ‬ٛٙ‫ اٌّف‬:‫س‬ٛ‫اٌزط‬  Evolution: the concept that the organisms living on Earth ‫ؼ‬١‫ رؼ‬ٟ‫خ اٌز‬١‫اٌىبئٕبد اٌؾ‬ today are the modified descendants (ً‫ )ٔغ‬of common ٟ٘ َٛ١ٌ‫ األسك ا‬ٍٝ‫ػ‬ ancestors (‫)عٍف‬. ‫ألعالف‬ ‫ِؼ َّذي‬ ً‫ٔغ‬.‫ِؾزشوخ‬  In other words, we can explain the sharing of traits by two ‫ش‬١‫ّىٕٕب رفغ‬٠ ،ٜ‫ثؼجبسح أخش‬ organisms with the premise that the organisms have ٓ١‫ث‬ ‫اٌغّبد‬ ‫ِؾبسوخ‬ ‫ أعبط‬ٍٝ‫ٓ ػ‬١١‫ٓ ؽ‬١ٕ‫وبئ‬ descended from a common ancestor, and we can account for ‫خ أؾذسد‬١‫أْ اٌىبئٕبد اٌؾ‬ differences with the idea that heritable changes have ‫ّىٕٕب‬٠ٚ ،‫ِٓ عٍف ِؾزشن‬ occurred along the way. ْ‫ش االخزالفبد ثفىشح أ‬١‫رفغ‬ ‫خ ؽذصذ ِغ‬١‫ساص‬ٌٛ‫شاد ا‬١١‫اٌزغ‬  Many kinds of evidence support the occurrence of evolution.‫لذ‬ٌٛ‫س ا‬ٚ‫ِش‬ and the theory that describes how it takes place. ‫ذ ِٓ األدٌخ‬٠‫رذػُ اٌؼذ‬ ٟ‫خ اٌز‬٠‫إٌظش‬ٚ ‫س‬ٛ‫س اٌزط‬ٚ‫ؽذ‬ 31.ٗ‫ص‬ٚ‫خ ؽذ‬١‫ف‬١‫رقف و‬ 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts ‫فغش‬٠ for the unity and diversity of life  Diversity is a hallmark of life. Biologists have so.‫بح‬١‫ضح ٌٍؾ‬١ٌّّ‫ اٌغّخ ا‬ٛ٘ ‫ع‬ٕٛ‫اٌز‬ ْ٢‫ ا‬ٝ‫بء ؽز‬١‫لذ رّىٓ ػٍّبء األؽ‬ٚ far identified and named about 1.8 million 1.8 ٌٟ‫ا‬ٛ‫خ ؽ‬١ّ‫رغ‬ٚ ‫ذ‬٠‫ِٓ رؾذ‬ species..‫ع‬ٛٔ ْٛ١ٍِ  To date, this diversity of life is known to include ‫ف أْ ٘زا‬ٚ‫ ِٓ اٌّؼش‬،ْ٢‫ ا‬ٝ‫ؽز‬ٚ ً‫م‬٠ ‫ؾًّ ِب ال‬٠ ‫بح‬١‫ اٌؾ‬ٟ‫ع ف‬ٕٛ‫اٌز‬ at least 100,000 species of fungi, 290,000 plant ،‫بد‬٠‫ع ِٓ اٌفطش‬ٛٔ 100000 ٓ‫ػ‬ species, 57,000 vertebrate species, and 1 million 57000ٚ ،‫ع ِٓ إٌجبربد‬ٛٔ 290000ٚ insect species (more than half of all known forms ِٓ ‫ع‬ٛٔ ْٛ١ٍِٚ ،‫بد‬٠‫ع ِٓ اٌفمبس‬ٛٔ of life)—not to mention the many types of single- ‫غ‬١ّ‫اٌؾؾشاد (أوضش ِٓ ٔقف ع‬ celled organisms. ٓ‫ه ػ‬١٘‫ ٔب‬- )‫فخ‬ٚ‫بح اٌّؼش‬١‫أؽىبي اٌؾ‬ ‫ذح‬١‫ؽ‬ٚ ‫اع اٌىبئٕبد‬ٛٔ‫ذ ِٓ أ‬٠‫اٌؼذ‬  Researchers identify thousands of additional.‫خ‬١ٍ‫اٌخ‬ species each year. Estimates of the total number ‫خ‬١‫اع اإلمبف‬ٛٔ‫ْ آالف األ‬ٛ‫ؾذد اٌجبؽض‬٠ of species range from about 10 million to over ‫شاد اٌؼذد‬٠‫ػ رمذ‬ٚ‫رزشا‬ٚ.َ‫وً ػب‬ 10 ٌٟ‫ا‬ٛ‫ؽ‬ ِٓ ‫اع‬ٛٔ‫ ٌأل‬ٌٟ‫اإلعّب‬ 100 million. 32.ْٛ١ٍِ 100 ِٓ ‫ أوضش‬ٌٝ‫ٓ ئ‬١٠‫ِال‬ Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata ‫بد‬١ٍ‫اٌؾج‬ Class: Mammalia ‫بد‬٠‫اٌضذ‬ Order: Carnivora ُ‫اؽ‬ٌٍٛ‫ا‬ Family: Ursidae ‫بد‬١‫اٌذث‬ Genus: Ursus Species: Ursus americanus  Taxonomy, the branch of biology that names and classifies species, formalizes this ordering of species into groups of increasing breadth ‫ذح االرغبع‬٠‫ِزضا‬, based on the degree to which they share characteristics. 33 The Three Domains of Life  Organisms are divided into three domains ٌُ‫ا‬ٛ‫ػ‬:  Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea ‫بد‬١‫ اٌجذائ‬are prokaryotic ‫اح‬ٌٕٛ‫بد ا‬١‫هالئؼ‬.  Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic ‫اح‬ٌٕٛ‫بد ا‬١‫م‬١‫ ؽم‬organisms.  Eukarya includes three kingdoms of multicellular eukaryotes: kingdoms Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.  Other unicellular eukaryotes, called protists ٌٟ‫ا‬ٚ‫األ‬. some protists are more closely related to plants, animals, or fungi. 34 Unity in the Diversity of Life ‫بح‬١‫ع اٌؾ‬ٕٛ‫ ر‬ٟ‫ؽذح ف‬ٌٛ‫ا‬  Unity is clear in many features ‫ اٌغّبد‬of cell structure, even among distantly related ‫ذح اٌقٍخ‬١‫ثؼ‬ organisms  Example of unity the diversity of life: the architecture of cilia in eukaryotes. Cilia (singular, cilium) are extensions of cells that function in locomotion. They occur in ‫ رغبػذ أ٘ذاة‬:َٛ١‫غ‬١ِ‫أ٘ذاة اٌجشا‬ :‫خ‬١‫ائ‬ٌٛٙ‫ب اٌمقجخ ا‬٠‫أ٘ذاة خال‬ ‫خ‬١‫ائ‬ٌٛٙ‫ رجطٓ اٌمقجخ ا‬ٟ‫ب اٌز‬٠‫اٌخال‬ eukaryotes as diverse as ‫ذ‬١‫ؽ‬ٚ ٟ‫َ (وبئٓ ؽ‬ٛ١‫غ‬١ِ‫اٌجشا‬ ٖ‫ب‬١ِ ٟ‫ؽشوزٗ ف‬ٚ ٗ‫خ) ثذفؼ‬١ٍ‫اٌخ‬ ‫ضح ثأ٘ذاة رغبػذ‬ٙ‫خِغ‬٠‫اٌجؾش‬ Paramecium (found in pond.‫اٌجشوخ‬ 35 ٓ١‫ ٔظبفخ اٌشئز‬ٍٝ‫ اٌؾفبظ ػ‬ٟ‫ف‬ ‫ك دفغ هجمخ ِٓ اٌّخبه‬٠‫ػٓ هش‬ water) and humans..ٍٝ‫ األػ‬ٌٝ‫صبد ئ‬ٌٍّٛ‫ِغ ا‬ Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection ٟ‫ؼ‬١‫خ االفطفبء اٌطج‬٠‫ٔظش‬ٚ ْٚ‫رؾبسٌض داس‬  Charles Robert Darwin published one of the most important books, entitled On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 1859  On the Origin of Species articulated ّٓ١‫ ث‬two main points: The first point was that contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors that differed from them. Darwin’s second main point was his proposal that ―natural selection‖ is an evolutionary mechanism for descent with modification.  Darwin’s theory explained the duality of unity and diversity ِٓ )‫اع اٌّؼبفشح ٔؾأد ِٓ عٍغٍخ (رؼبلت‬ٛٔ‫ أْ األ‬ٟ٘ ٌٝٚ‫إٌمطخ األ‬ ٟ٘ ٓ٠ٚ‫خ ٌذاس‬١ٔ‫خ اٌضب‬١‫غ‬١‫وبٔذ إٌمطخ اٌشئ‬ٚ.‫ب‬ٕٙ‫ رخزٍف ػ‬ٟ‫األعالف اٌز‬.ً٠‫خ ٌألفشاد ِغ اٌزؼذ‬٠‫س‬ٛ‫خ رط‬١ٌ‫آ‬36 ٛ٘ "ٟ‫ؼ‬١‫الزشاؽٗ ثأْ "االٔزمبء اٌطج‬ ‫ع‬ٕٛ‫اٌز‬ٚ ‫ؽذح‬ٌٛ‫خ ا‬١‫ٓ صٕبئ‬٠ٚ‫خ داس‬٠‫مؾذ ٔظش‬ٚ‫ٌمذ أ‬  Darwin observed that:  Individuals in a population vary in their :ْ‫ٓ أ‬٠ٚ‫الؽع داس‬ traits, many of which are heritable. ٟ‫ ِغزّغ ف‬ٞ‫ أ‬ٟ‫ع األفشاد ف‬ٕٛ‫رز‬ٚ ‫رخزٍف‬  More offspring are produced than survive,.ٟ‫ساص‬ٚ ‫ب‬ِٕٙ ‫ش‬١‫وض‬ٚ ، ‫ب‬ٙ‫خقبئق‬ٚ ‫ب‬ٙ‫عّبر‬ ّٓ‫ش ِٓ األفشاد ِمبسٔخ ث‬١‫زُ ئٔزبط ػذد وج‬٠ and competition is inevitable ‫ فبٌّٕبفغخ أِش ال‬،‫بح‬١‫ذ اٌؾ‬١‫ ل‬ٍٝ‫ ػ‬ٝ‫جم‬٠  Species generally suitable their.ِٕٗ ‫ثذ‬ environment.‫ب‬ٙ‫ئز‬١‫ف ِغ ث‬١‫اع رزى‬ٛٔ‫األ‬ 37  Darwin conclude that 1- Individuals that are best suited to their :ْ‫ٓ أ‬٠ٚ‫ اعزٕزظ داس‬ environment are more likely to survive and ‫فخ أوضش ِغ‬١‫ األفشاد اٌّزى‬-1 reproduce ‫ األوضش اؽزّبال ً ٌٍجمبء‬ٟ٘ ‫ب‬ٙ‫ئز‬١‫ث‬ 2- Over time, more individuals in a population ‫اٌزىبصش‬ٚ will have the advantageous traits ‫ذ‬٠‫ عزّزٍه اٌؼذ‬،‫لذ‬ٌٛ‫س ا‬ٚ‫ ثّش‬-2 ‫ػخ‬ّٛ‫ اٌّغ‬ٟ‫ِٓ األفشاد ف‬  Evolution occurs as the unequal reproductive ‫ذح‬١‫خقبئـ ِف‬ٚ ‫عّبد‬ success of individuals, In other words, the ٞ‫س وٕغبػ رىبصش‬ٛ‫ؾذس اٌزط‬٠ environment ―selects‖ for the propagation of ،‫) ٌألفشاد‬ٞٚ‫ش ِزىبفئ (ِزغب‬١‫غ‬ beneficial traits ‫ئخ أزؾبس‬١‫ رخزبس اٌج‬،ٜ‫ثؼجبسح أخش‬  Darwin called this process natural selection ‫ذح‬١‫اٌقفبد اٌّف‬ ٖ‫ ٘ز‬ٍٝ‫ٓ ػ‬٠ٚ‫ أهٍك داس‬ )‫خ اعُ االٔزمبء (االفطفبء‬١ٍّ‫اٌؼ‬ 38 ٟ‫ؼ‬١‫اٌطج‬ ‫ػبد ثغّبد‬ّٛ‫ِغ‬ ٓ٠‫ئلقبءاألفشاد اٌز‬ ٓ١‫رىبصش إٌبع‬ ‫ػخ‬ٕٛ‫خ ِز‬١‫ساص‬ٚ ‫ٕخ‬١‫ُ عّبد ِؼ‬ٙ٠‫ٌذ‬ ٟ‫شحاٌغّبد اٌز‬١‫ر‬ٚ ‫بدح‬٠‫ص‬ ‫اٌزىبصش‬ٚ ‫رؼضص اٌجمبء‬  Natural selection. This beetle population has colonized a locale where the soil has been blackened by a recent fire. Initially, the population varies extensively in the inherited coloration of the individuals, from very light gray to charcoal. For hungry birds that prey on the beetles, it is easiest to 39 spot the beetles that are lightest in color. ‫ِضبي ٌز‪ٛ‬م‪١‬ؼ االفطفبء اٌطج‪١‬ؼ‪ ،ٟ‬اعزؼّشد ِغّ‪ٛ‬ػخ ِٓ اٌخٕبفظ ِٕطمخ‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫رؾ‪ٌٛ‬ذ رشثز‪ٙ‬ب ئٌ‪ ٝ‬اٌٍ‪ ْٛ‬األع‪ٛ‬د ثغجت ؽش‪٠‬ك‪.‬‬ ‫ف‪ ٟ‬اٌجذا‪٠‬خ‪ ،‬رٕ‪ٛ‬ػذ ِغّ‪ٛ‬ػخ اٌخٕبفظ ثؾىً وج‪١‬ش ف‪ ٟ‬اٌٍ‪ ْٛ‬اٌّ‪ٛ‬س‪ٚ‬س ٌألفشاد‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ِٓ اٌشِبد‪ ٞ‬اٌفبرؼ عذاً ئٌ‪ ٝ‬األع‪ٛ‬د‪.‬‬ ‫ثبٌٕغجخ ٌٍط‪ٛ١‬س اٌغبئؼخ اٌز‪ ٟ‬رزغز‪ ٜ‬ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اٌخٕبفظ‪ ِٓ ،‬األع‪ ًٙ‬رؾذ‪٠‬ذ‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫اٌخٕبفظ راد اٌٍ‪ ْٛ‬األفزؼ‪.‬‬ ‫‪40‬‬  the products of natural selection result of the wonderful adaptations of various organisms to the special circumstances of their way of life and their environment.  The wings of the bat are an excellent example of adaptation.  Evolutionary adaptation, Bats the only mammals capable of active ‫فبد إٌّبعجخ‬١‫غخ ٌٍزى‬١‫ ٔز‬ٟ٘ ٟ‫ؼ‬١‫ئْ ِٕزغبد االٔزمبء اٌطج‬ flight, have wings with webbing ‫ف‬ٚ‫خ اٌّخزٍفخ ِغ اٌظش‬١‫ اٌىبئٕبد اٌؾ‬ٍٝ‫ رطشأ ػ‬ٟ‫اٌز‬ between extended ―fingers.‖.‫ب‬ٙ‫ئز‬١‫ث‬ٚ ‫ب‬ٙ‫بر‬١‫مخ ؽ‬٠‫اٌخبفخ ٌطش‬.‫ف‬١‫ ِضبي ِّزبص ٌٍزى‬ٟ٘ ‫ئْ أعٕؾخ اٌخفبػ‬  Darwin proposed that such ‫بد‬١٠‫ ِٓ اٌضذ‬ٛ٘ ‫ اٌخفبػ‬:ٞ‫س‬ٛ‫ف اٌزط‬١‫ِضبي ػٓ اٌزى‬ adaptations are refined over time ‫ب‬ٙ‫ٗ أعٕؾخ ث‬٠‫ ٌذ‬،‫شاْ إٌؾو‬١‫ اٌط‬ٍٝ‫ذح اٌمبدسح ػ‬١‫ؽ‬ٌٛ‫ا‬ by natural selection..‫ٓ األفبثغ اٌّّزذح‬١‫ؽجىبد ث‬ ‫س‬ٚ‫ب ثّش‬ٕٙ١‫زُ رؾغ‬٠ ‫فبد‬١‫ اٌزى‬41ٖ‫ٓ أْ ِضً ٘ز‬٠ٚ‫الزشػ داس‬.ٟ‫ؼ‬١‫ك االفطفبء اٌطج‬٠‫لذ ػٓ هش‬ٌٛ‫ا‬  The Tree of Life  Unity in diversity arises from descent with modification ً٠‫ع رٕؾأ ِٓ األفً (اٌغٍف) ِغ اٌزؼذ‬ٕٛ‫ اٌز‬ٟ‫ؽذح ف‬ٌٛ‫ا‬  The bat’s forelimbs, though adapted for flight, actually have all the same bones, joints, nerves, and blood vessels found in other limbs as diverse as the human arm, the foreleg of a horse, and the flipper of a whale. ،ْ‫شا‬١‫ف ِغ اٌط‬١‫خ ٌٍخفبػ رزى‬١ِ‫ اٌشغُ ِٓ أْ األهشاف األِب‬ٍٝ‫ػ‬ ‫األػقبة‬ٚ ً‫اٌّفبف‬ٚ َ‫ ٔفظ اٌؼظب‬ٍٝ‫ ػ‬ٞٛ‫الغ رؾز‬ٌٛ‫ ا‬ٟ‫ب ف‬ٙٔ‫ئال أ‬ These wings are not like those of feathered birds ‫ؼ‬٠‫س راد س‬ٛ١‫ ;ه‬the bat is ً‫ػخ ِض‬ٕٛ‫ اٌّز‬ٜ‫ األهشاف األخش‬ٟ‫دح ف‬ٛ‫ع‬ٌّٛ‫خ ا‬٠ِٛ‫خ اٌذ‬١‫ػ‬ٚ‫األ‬ٚ a mammal..‫د‬ٛ‫صػبٔف اٌؾ‬ٚ ،ْ‫خ ٌٍؾقب‬١ِ‫اٌغبق األِب‬ٚ ،‫خ‬٠‫اٌزساع اٌجؾش‬ 42  the unity of mammalian limb anatomy reflects inheritance of that structure from a common ancestor, the prototype mammal from which all ‫بد‬١٠‫ اٌضذ‬ٜ‫ؼ األهشاف ٌذ‬٠‫ؽذح رؾش‬ٚ ْ‫ئ‬ ‫خ ِٓ عٍف‬١ٕ‫ساصخ ٘زٖ اٌج‬ٚ ‫رؼىظ‬ other mammals descended. The diversity of ")‫خ‬١ٌٚ‫خ (األ‬١‫رع‬ٌّٕٛ‫بد ا‬١٠‫ "اٌضذ‬،‫ِؾزشن‬ mammalian forelimbs results from modification by.ٜ‫بد األخش‬١٠‫ب وً اٌضذ‬ِٕٙ ‫ أؾذس‬ٟ‫اٌز‬ natural selection operating over millions of ٜ‫خ ٌذ‬١ِ‫ع األهشاف األِب‬ٕٛ‫رٕزظ ر‬ٚ ٗ‫ؾذص‬٠ ٞ‫ً اٌز‬٠‫بد ػٓ اٌزؼذ‬١٠‫اٌضذ‬ generations in different environmental conditions. ٓ١٠‫ ِال‬ٜ‫ ِذ‬ٍٝ‫ ػ‬ٟ‫ؼ‬١‫االٔزمبء اٌطج‬.‫خ ِخزٍفخ‬١‫ئ‬١‫ف ث‬ٚ‫ ظً ظش‬ٟ‫بي ف‬١‫األع‬  Fossils and other evidence corroborate anatomical ‫ؽذح‬ٌٛ‫ش٘ب ِٓ األدٌخ ا‬١‫غ‬ٚ ‫بد‬٠‫رإوذ اٌؾفش‬ unity in supporting this view of mammalian descent ‫خ إٌظش اٌمبئٍخ‬ٙ‫ع‬ٚ ُ‫ دػ‬ٟ‫خ ف‬١‫ؾ‬٠‫اٌزؾش‬ from a common ancestor..‫بد رٕؾذس ِٓ عٍف ِؾزشن‬١٠‫ثأْ اٌضذ‬ ِٓ ،ٟ‫ؼ‬١‫ٓ أْ االٔزمبء اٌطج‬٠ٚ‫الزشػ داس‬  Darwin proposed that natural selection, by its ‫ فزشاد‬ٜ‫ ِذ‬ٍٝ‫خ ػ‬١ّ‫خالي آصبسٖ اٌزشاو‬ cumulative effects over long periods of time, could ‫ء‬ٛ‫ ٔؾ‬ٟ‫زغجت ف‬٠ ‫ لذ‬،ِٓ‫ٍخ ِٓ اٌض‬٠ٛ‫ه‬ ‫اع‬ٛٔ‫ أوضش ِٓ األ‬ٚ‫ٓ أ‬١‫ػ‬ٛٔ ‫س‬ٛ‫ رط‬ٚ‫أ‬ cause an ancestral species to give rise to two or.‫خ‬١‫اٌغٍف‬ more descendant species. 43 Prototype: a first, typical or preliminary model of something,  Descent with modification ً٠‫ اٌغٍف ِغ اٌزؼذ‬ٚ‫األفً أ‬:  adaptive radiation of finches on the Galápagos Islands. This ―tree‖ illustrates a current model for the evolution of finches on the Galápagos. Note the different beaks, which are adapted to different food sources on the different islands. For example, among the seedeaters, the heavier, thicker beaks are better at cracking larger seeds with strong coats, while the more slender beaks are better at picking up small seeds such as grass seeds. 44 ‫رى‪١‬ف اٌؼقبف‪١‬ش ف‪ ٟ‬عضس غبالثبغ‪ٛ‬ط‪.‬ر‪ٛ‬مؼ "اٌؾغشح" ّٔ‪ٛ‬رط ٌزط‪ٛ‬س اٌؼقبف‪١‬ش ف‪ٟ‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫عضس غبالثبغ‪ٛ‬ط‪.‬الؽع إٌّبل‪١‬ش اٌّخزٍفخ‪ٚ ،‬اٌز‪ ٟ‬رزى‪١‬ف ِغ ِقبدس اٌغزاء‬ ‫اٌّخزٍفخ ف‪ ٟ‬اٌغضس‪.‬‬ ‫ػٍ‪ ٝ‬عج‪ ً١‬اٌّضبي‪ ،‬ث‪ ٓ١‬آوٍ‪ ٟ‬اٌجز‪ٚ‬س‪ ،‬رى‪ ْٛ‬إٌّبل‪١‬ش اٌضخ‪ٕ١‬خ أفنً ف‪ ٟ‬رىغ‪١‬ش‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫اٌجز‪ٚ‬س وج‪١‬شح اٌؾغُ راد اٌغالف اٌم‪ ،ٞٛ‬ث‪ّٕ١‬ب رى‪ ْٛ‬إٌّبل‪١‬ش األوضش ٔؾبفخ أفنً‬ ‫ف‪ ٟ‬اٌزمبه اٌجز‪ٚ‬س اٌقغ‪١‬شح ِضً ثز‪ٚ‬س األػؾبة‪.‬‬ ‫‪45‬‬ 1.3 In studying nature, scientists make observations and form and test hypotheses  Science is a way of knowing, an approach to understanding the natural world. The word science is derived from a Latin verb meaning ٌُ‫ُ اٌؼب‬ٙ‫ظ ٌف‬ٙٔٚ ،‫ٍخ ٌٍّؼشفخ‬١‫ع‬ٚ ٛ٘ ٍُ‫اٌؼ‬ ―to know.‖ ً‫ وٍّخ "ػٍُ" ِؾزمخ ِٓ فؼ‬.ٟ‫ؼ‬١‫اٌطج‬  At the heart of science is inquiry, a search."‫ "اٌّؼشفخ‬ٟٕ‫ؼ‬٠ ٟٕ١‫الر‬ ،)‫ اٌغإاي (االعزفغبس‬ٛ٘ ٍُ‫٘ش اٌؼ‬ٛ‫ئْ ع‬ for information and explanations. There is no ‫عذ‬ٛ‫ ال ر‬.‫شاد‬١‫اٌزفغ‬ٚ ‫ِبد‬ٍٛ‫اٌجؾش ػٓ اٌّؼ‬ٚ formula for successful scientific inquiry, no ‫ال‬ٚ ،‫ إٌبعؼ‬ٍّٟ‫اؽذح ٌٍغإاي اٌؼ‬ٚ ‫غخ‬١‫ف‬ single scientific method that researchers ٍٝ‫غت ػ‬٠ ‫اؽذح‬ٚ ‫خ‬١ٍّ‫مخ ػ‬٠‫عذ هش‬ٛ‫ر‬ must follow..‫ب‬ٙ‫ٓ ارجبػ‬١‫اٌجبؽض‬ ّٓ‫خ اعزمقبء رزن‬١ٍّ‫غزخذَ اٌؼٍّبء ػ‬٠  Scientists use a process of inquiry that ‫خ‬١‫شاد ِٕطم‬١‫ٓ رفغ‬٠ٛ‫رى‬ٚ ،‫مغ اٌّالؽظبد‬ٚ includes making observations, forming.‫اخزجبس٘ب‬ٚ ،)‫بد‬١‫لبثٍخ ٌالخزجبس (فشم‬ٚ logical, testable explanations (hypotheses), and testing them. 46  Making Observations  scientists describe natural structures and processes through careful observation  Recorded observations are called data.  data are items of information on which scientific inquiry is based.  Qualitative data ‫خ‬١‫ػ‬ٌٕٛ‫بٔبد ا‬١‫اٌج‬, often in the form of recorded descriptions ‫فبف ِغغٍخ‬ٚ‫أ‬.  Quantitative data ‫خ‬١ّ‫بٔبد اٌى‬١‫اٌج‬, are generally expressed as numerical measurements ‫بعبد‬١‫ل‬ ‫خ‬٠‫ ػذد‬and often organized into tables and graphs. Jane Goodall collecting qualitative data on chimpanzee behavior 47 Forming and Testing Hypotheses  In science, a hypothesis is a tentative answer to a well framed question. It is ‫خ‬١‫ ئعبثخ ِجذئ‬ٟ٘ ‫خ‬١‫ اٌفشم‬،ٍَٛ‫ اٌؼ‬ٟ‫ف‬ usually a rational account for a set of ٓ‫ ػبد ًح ػجبسح ػ‬ٟ٘ٚ.‫ٌغإاي ِؾذد‬ observations, based on the available data ،‫ػخ ِٓ اٌّالؽظبد‬ّٛ‫ ٌّغ‬ٟٔ‫ؽغبة ػمال‬ ِٓ ٗ١‫ع‬ٛ‫ثز‬ٚ ‫بٔبد اٌّزبؽخ‬١‫ اٌج‬ٌٝ‫اعزٕبداً ئ‬ and guided by inductive reasoning..ٟ‫االعزذالي االعزمشائ‬  A scientific hypothesis must lead to ‫ رٕجإاد‬ٌٝ‫خ ئ‬١ٍّ‫خ اٌؼ‬١‫ اٌفشم‬ٞ‫غت أْ رإد‬٠ predictions that can be tested by making ‫ّىٓ اخزجبس٘ب ِٓ خالي ئعشاء ِالؽظبد‬٠.‫ ئعشاء رغبسة‬ٚ‫خ أ‬١‫ئمبف‬ additional observations or by performing ٟ‫زُ ئعشاؤٖ ف‬٠ ٍّٟ‫ اخزجبس ػ‬ٟ٘ ‫اٌزغشثخ‬ experiments. ‫ه ِؾىّخ‬ٚ‫ف خبمؼخ ٌؾش‬ٚ‫ظً ظش‬  An experiment is a scientific test, carried.‫هخ‬ٛ‫ِنج‬ٚ out under controlled conditions. 48  We all use observations and develop questions and hypotheses in solving everyday problems. Let’s say, for example:  your flashlight fails while you are camping. That’s an observation.  The question is obvious: Why doesn’t the flashlight work? Two reasonable hypotheses based on your experience are that (1) the batteries in the flashlight are dead or (2) the bulb is burnt out.  The dead-battery hypothesis predicts that replacing the batteries will fix the problem.  TEST 49  RESULT  ‫ٔؾٓ ٔغزخذَ اٌّالؽظبد ‪ٔٚ‬نغ األعئٍخ ‪ٚ‬اٌفشم‪١‬بد ف‪ ٟ‬ؽً اٌّؾىالد اٌ‪١ِٛ١‬خ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ٌٕفزشك ػٍ‪ ٝ‬عج‪ ً١‬اٌّضبي‪ :‬رؼطً ِقجبؽه اٌ‪١‬ذ‪ ٞٚ‬أصٕبء اٌزخ‪٘ ،ُ١١‬زٖ ِالؽظخ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫اٌغإاي ‪ٌّ :‬برا ال ‪٠‬ؼًّ اٌّقجبػ اٌ‪١‬ذ‪ٞٚ‬؟‬ ‫ٕ٘بن فشم‪١‬زبْ ِؾزٍّزبْ ثٕب ًء ػٍ‪ ٝ‬رغشثزه ‪ّ٘ٚ‬ب‪ )1( :‬أْ ثطبس‪٠‬بد اٌّقجبػ اٌ‪١‬ذ‪ ٞٚ‬لذ‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫ٔفذد أ‪ )2( ٚ‬أْ اٌّقجبػ لذ اؽزشق‪.‬‬ ‫رز‪ٛ‬لغ فشم‪١‬خ اٌجطبس‪٠‬خ اٌز‪ٔ ٟ‬فذد أْ اعزجذاي اٌجطبس‪٠‬بد ع‪١‬ؾً اٌّؾىٍخ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫االخزجبس‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫إٌز‪١‬غخ‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫‪50‬‬ ‫‪A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry:‬‬ ‫اٌز‪ٟ‬‬ ‫اٌؾبهئ‪١‬خ‬ ‫اٌفئشاْ‬ ‫أفشاد ِٓ ٔفظ إٌ‪ٛ‬ع ‪٠‬ؼ‪١‬ؾ‪ْٛ‬‬ ‫رؼ‪١‬ؼ ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اٌىضجبْ اٌشٍِ‪١‬خ‬ ‫ػٍ‪ ٝ‬ثؼذ ؽ‪ٛ‬اٌ‪ 30 ٟ‬وُ ف‪ٟ‬‬ ‫لٍ‪ٍ١‬خ اٌغطبء إٌجبر‪ ٟ‬ػٍ‪ٝ‬‬ ‫اٌذاخً ٌذ‪ ُٙ٠‬فشاء داوٓ ػٍ‪ٝ‬‬ ‫ه‪ٛ‬ي اٌغبؽً ٌ‪ٙ‬ب فشاء فبرؼ‬ ‫ظ‪ٛٙ‬سُ٘‪ِّ ،‬ب ‪٠‬غبػذُ٘‬ ‫ِشلو ػٍ‪ ٝ‬ظ‪ٙ‬ش٘ب ‪٠‬غّؼ ٌ‪ٙ‬ب‬ ‫ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اٌزخف‪ ٟ‬مّٓ ِ‪ٛ‬ائٍ‪ُٙ‬‬ ‫ثبالٔذِبط ف‪ِ ٟ‬ؾ‪١‬ط‪ٙ‬ب‪ِّ ،‬ب‬ ‫(ٌ‪ِٕ ْٛ‬بعت ٌٍج‪١‬ئخ اٌز‪ٟ‬‬ ‫‪ٛ٠‬فش ٌ‪ٙ‬ب اٌزّ‪ٗ٠ٛ‬‬ ‫رؼ‪١‬ؼ ف‪ٙ١‬ب)‪.‬‬ ‫‪51‬‬  ‫ً٘ ‪٠‬إصش اٌزّ‪ ٗ٠ٛ‬ػٍ‪ِ ٝ‬ؼذالد االفزشاط ف‪ٟ‬‬ ‫اٌّغّ‪ٛ‬ػز‪ ِٓ ٓ١‬اٌفئشاْ؟‬ ‫لبَ اٌجبؽض‪ ْٛ‬ثز‪ٛ‬ص‪٠‬غ ّٔبرط ِخزٍفخ ِٓ اٌفئشاْ‬ ‫راد أٌ‪ٛ‬اْ فبرؾخ أ‪ ٚ‬داوٕخ رؼبوظ ث‪١‬ئز‪ٙ‬ب‪.‬‬ ‫ف‪ ٟ‬فجبػ اٌ‪ َٛ١‬اٌزبٌ‪ ،ٟ‬أؽق‪ٛ‬ا اٌفئشاْ اٌّفم‪ٛ‬دح‪.‬‬ ‫ػبٔذ اٌفئشاْ اٌز‪٠ ٌُ ٟ‬زطبثك ّٔط‪ٙ‬ب ِغ‬ ‫ِؾ‪١‬ط‪ٙ‬ب ِٓ افزشاط أػٍ‪ ٝ‬ثىض‪١‬ش ِٓ إٌّبرط‬ ‫اٌّّ‪٘ٛ‬خ‪.‬‬ ‫ٔغجخ إٌّبرط اٌز‪ٟ‬‬ ‫رؼشمذ ٌٍ‪ٙ‬غ‪َٛ‬‬ ‫االعزٕزبط‪ :‬رزفك إٌزبئظ ِغ ر‪ٛ‬لغ اٌجبؽض‪ ٛ٘ٚ ،ٓ١‬أْ‬ ‫‪ 52‬ػشمخ‬ ‫اٌفئشاْ راد األٌ‪ٛ‬اْ اٌّّ‪٘ٛ‬خ عزى‪ ْٛ‬ألً‬ ‫ٌالفزشاط ِٓ اٌفئشاْ غ‪١‬ش اٌّّ‪٘ٛ‬خ‪ٚ.‬ثبٌزبٌ‪ ،ٟ‬فاْ‬ ‫اٌزغشثخ رذػُ فشم‪١‬خ اٌزّ‪.ٗ٠ٛ‬‬  Inquiry: Does camouflage affect predation rates on two populations of mice?  Experiment Hopi Hoekstra and colleagues wanted to test the hypothesis that coloration of beach and inland mice (Peromyscus polionotus) provides camouflage that protects them from predation in their respective habitats. The researchers spray-painted mouse models with either light or dark color patterns that matched those of the beach and inland mice and then placed models with both patterns in each of the habitats. The next morning, they counted damaged or missing models.  Results For each habitat, the researchers calculated the percentage of attacked models that were camouflaged or non-camouflaged. In both habitats, the models whose pattern did not match their surroundings suffered much higher ―predation‖ than did the camouflaged models.  Conclusion The results are consistent with the researchers’ prediction: that mouse models with camouflage coloration would be preyed on less often than non-camouflaged mouse models. Thus, the experiment supports the camouflage hypothesis. 53 Theories in Science  how is it different from a hypothesis?  Scientific theory is much broader in scope than a hypothesis.  Theory is general enough to spin off many new, specific hypotheses that can be tested.  Third, compared with any hypothesis, a theory is generally supported by a much greater body of evidence. ‫خ؟‬١‫خ ػٓ اٌفشم‬١ٍّ‫خ اٌؼ‬٠‫ف رخزٍف إٌظش‬١‫و‬.‫خ‬١‫ش ِٓ اٌفشم‬١‫عغ ثىض‬ٚ‫خ أ‬١ٍّ‫خ اٌؼ‬٠‫ئْ ٔطبق إٌظش‬ ‫ذح‬٠‫بد اٌغذ‬١‫ذ ِٓ اٌفشم‬٠‫ٓ اٌؼذ‬٠ٛ‫ ٌزى‬ٟ‫ىف‬٠ ‫خ ػبِخ ثّب‬٠‫فبٌٕظش‬.‫ّىٓ اخزجبس٘ب‬٠ ٟ‫اٌّؾذدح اٌز‬ ‫ػخ‬ّٛ‫ِبً ثّغ‬ّٛ‫ِخ ػ‬ٛ‫خ ِذػ‬٠‫ فاْ إٌظش‬،‫خ‬١‫ فشم‬ٞ‫ثبٌّمبسٔخ ِغ أ‬.‫ش ِٓ األدٌخ‬١‫أوجش ثىض‬ 54  1.4 Science benefits from a cooperative ‫ظ‬ٌٕٙ‫ا‬ ِٓ ٍُ‫اٌؼ‬ ‫ذ‬١‫غزف‬٠ approach and diverse viewpoints. ‫إٌظش‬ ‫بد‬ٙ‫ع‬ٚٚ ٟٔٚ‫اٌزؼب‬.‫ػخ‬ٕٛ‫اٌّز‬  Most scientists work in teams, which often include both graduate and undergraduate students.  And to succeed in science, it helps to be a good communicator.  Research results have no impact until shared with a community of peers through seminars, publications, and websites..‫خ‬١‫اٌغبِؼ‬ٚ ‫ب‬١ٍ‫ اٌغبٌت هالة اٌذساعبد اٌؼ‬ٟ‫ فشق رنُ ف‬ٟ‫ؼًّ أغٍت اٌؼٍّبء ف‬٠.‫ذح‬١‫افً ع‬ٛ‫بساد ر‬ِٙ ‫غت اِزالن‬٠ ،ٍَٛ‫ ِغبي اٌؼ‬ٟ‫ٌٍٕغبػ ف‬ٚ ‫الغ‬ٌّٛ‫ا‬ٚ ‫ساد‬ٛ‫إٌّؾ‬ٚ ‫اد‬ٚ‫ب ِغ اٌضِالء ِٓ خالي إٌذ‬ٙ‫ ئرا رّذ ِؾبسوز‬55‫ش ئال‬١‫ رأص‬ٞ‫ْ ٌٕزبئظ األثؾبس أ‬ٛ‫ى‬٠ ‫ال‬.‫خ‬١ٔٚ‫اإلٌىزش‬  Building on the Work of Others ٓ٠‫خش‬٢‫ ػًّ ا‬ٍٝ‫اٌجٕبء ػ‬  Scientists check each other's claims by )‫ ادػبءاد‬- ‫زؾمك اٌؼٍّبء ِٓ (ٔزبئظ – ِمزشؽبد‬٠ performing similar experiments..‫ُ اٌجؼل ِٓ خالي ئعشاء رغبسة ِّبصٍخ‬ٙ‫ثؼن‬ ‫غت‬١‫ ف‬،‫خ لبثٍخ ٌٍزىشاس‬١‫ج‬٠‫ئرا ٌُ رىٓ إٌزبئظ اٌزغش‬  If experimental results are not repeatable,.‫خ‬١‫إٌزبئظ األعبع‬ٚ ‫ِشاعؼخ اٌجؾش‬ ‫ ٔفظ‬ٍٝ‫ْ ػ‬ٛ‫ؼًّ ػٍّبء ِخزٍف‬٠ ْ‫ش اٌّؼزبد أ‬١‫ِٓ غ‬ the original claim will have to be revised.‫عإاي اٌجؾش‬ ‫ي‬ٛ‫بٔبد ؽ‬١‫ْ اٌؼٍّبء ِٓ خالي ِؾبسوخ اٌج‬ٚ‫زؼب‬٠  It is not unusual for different scientists to ‫ رثبثخ‬،‫ً اٌّضبي‬١‫ عج‬ٍٝ‫خ (ػ‬١‫رع‬ٌّٕٛ‫خ ا‬١‫اٌىبئٕبد اٌؾ‬ work on the same research question Drosophila melanogaster) ‫خ‬ٙ‫اٌفبو‬  Scientists cooperate by sharing data about model organisms (for example, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster) 56 Science, Technology, and Society ُٙ‫ ف‬ٛ٘ ٍُ‫ذف ِٓ اٌؼ‬ٌٙ‫ا‬.‫خ‬١‫ؼ‬١‫ا٘ش اٌطج‬ٛ‫اٌظ‬  The goal of science is to understand natural phenomena ‫ب‬١‫ع‬ٌٕٛٛ‫ذف ِٓ اٌزى‬ٌٙ‫ا‬ ‫اٌّؼشفخ‬ ‫ك‬١‫رطج‬ ٛ٘  The goal of technology is to apply scientific knowledge for.‫خ ٌغشك ِؾذد‬١ٍّ‫اٌؼ‬ some specific purpose ‫بء‬١‫األؽ‬ ٍُ‫ػ‬ ‫ض‬١ّ‫ز‬٠ ‫ض‬١ّ‫ّٕب رز‬١‫ ث‬،‫ثبالوزؾبفبد‬  Biology is marked by "discoveries," while technology is ‫ب ثبالخزشاػبد‬١‫ع‬ٌٕٛٛ‫اٌزى‬ marked by "inventions" 57  The combination of science and technology has dramatic effects on society ‫شاد‬١‫ب ٌٗ رأص‬١‫ع‬ٌٕٛٛ‫اٌزى‬ٚ ٍُ‫ٓ اٌؼ‬١‫ئْ اٌغّغ ث‬ ،‫ً اٌّضبي‬١‫ عج‬ٍٝ‫ ػ‬.‫ اٌّغزّغ‬ٍٝ‫شح ػ‬١‫وج‬ For example, the discovery of DNA by ً‫ ِٓ لج‬ٌٕٞٚٛ‫عّؼ اوزؾبف اٌؾّل ا‬ James Watson and Francis Crick allowed َ‫ه ثبٌزمذ‬٠‫ظ وش‬١‫فشأغ‬ٚ ْٛ‫ارغ‬ٚ ‫ّظ‬١‫ع‬ ‫ ِضً اخزجبس‬ٌٕٞٚٛ‫ب اٌؾّل ا‬١‫ع‬ٌٕٛٛ‫ رى‬ٟ‫ف‬ for advances in DNA technology such as ‫خ‬١‫ساص‬ٌٛ‫األِشاك ا‬ testing for hereditary diseases ‫ب رـُشوض أوضش‬١‫ع‬ٌٕٛٛ‫ي اٌزى‬ٛ‫ئْ إٌّبلؾبد ؽ‬ ‫ظ‬١ٌٚ )‫ٕب أْ ٔفؼً رٌه‬١ٍ‫غت ػ‬٠ ً٘( ٍٝ‫ػ‬  Debates on technology center more on )‫ّىٕٕب أْ ٔفؼً رٌه‬٠ ً٘( "should we do it" than "can we do it" َ‫خ ِٓ اعزخذا‬١‫لذ رٕزظ خالفبد أخالل‬ ٌُ‫ب رقطذَ أوضش ثؼب‬ٕٙ‫ضخ ٌى‬٠‫اٌزمبٔبد اٌؾذ‬  Ethical issues can arise from new ‫اٌؾنبسح‬ٚ ُ١‫اٌم‬ٚ ‫االلزقبد‬ٚ ‫بعخ‬١‫اٌغ‬ technology, but have as much to do with politics, economics, and cultural values as with science and technology 58  Which of the following statements accurately defines the term "genome"? A) A collection of all the proteins expressed by a cell. B) The complete set of genetic instructions inherited by an organism. C) The total number of chromosomes in a species. D) A database of genetic sequences from multiple organisms. 59  What is a major advantage of high-throughput technology compared to traditional methods? A) They require less biological material. B) They are able to analyze many samples at the same time and much faster. C) They produce more accurate results than any traditional method. D) They are easier to perform and require less training. 60  17) Use the following figure to answer the question. Describe groups labeled A and B. A) A is the most recent species to evolve on Earth whereas B is an ancestor of group "A―. B) A is the most recent species to evolve on Earth whereas B is the last common ancestor of Archaea and Eukarya. C) A is the common ancestor of all life whereas B is the common ancestor of Bacteria and Archaea. D) A is the common ancestor of all life whereas B is the last common ancestor of Archaea and Eukarya.. 61  24) Use the information in the graph to answer the following question. The data can best be used to address which of the following questions? A) What is the impact of plowing soil ‫ؽشس اٌزشثخ‬ on the number of earthworms.? B) Does season has an impact on the size of the earthworms? C) Does plowing have an impact on the size of the earthworms? D) What is the impact of plowing on the speed of growth of the earthworms? 62  25) Use the information in the graph to answer the following question. Which of the following claims is best supported using the graph? A) Plowing has no effect on the number of earthworms in the soil. B) More earthworms are found in the soil in spring than in fall. C) Plowed soil contains more earthworms than unplowed soil. D) Unplowed soil contains more earthworms than plowed soil.. 63  44) Which of the following statements best distinguishes hypotheses from theories in science? A) Theories are hypotheses that have been proved. B) Hypotheses are guesses; theories are correct answers. C) Hypotheses usually are relatively narrow in scope;. theories have broad explanatory power. D) Theories are proved true; hypotheses are often contradicted by experimental results. 64  46) Which sentence best describes the logic of scientific inquiry? A) If I generate a testable hypothesis, tests and observations will support it. B) If my prediction is correct, it will lead to a testable hypothesis. C) If my observations are accurate, they will support my hypothesis. D) If my prediction turns out to be correct,, my hypothesis is supported. 65 Do the best Thank you 66