Exam #1 - Blood, Lymph, & The Immune System PDF

Exam #1 Review : Blood, Lymph & The Immune System Dr. Randy Brilz DEHY 114 Jan 30, 2025 Exam #1 1. The Exam will start at 8:15 pm Tuesday Feb 4, 2025 – this is to give you enough time to change after Dawn’s class. 2. The exam will be The exam format for the most part will not change. T...

Exam #1 Review : Blood, Lymph & The Immune System Dr. Randy Brilz DEHY 114 Jan 30, 2025 Exam #1 1. The Exam will start at 8:15 pm Tuesday Feb 4, 2025 – this is to give you enough time to change after Dawn’s class. 2. The exam will be The exam format for the most part will not change. The majority of the questions will be multiple choice 85-95%, and just like before and there will be a diagram label question as well. (one major diagram label question and perhaps one minor one) 3. The addition will be a few questions will be short answer and may be one long answer. (5-15%) 4. These are rough estimates only 5. As we continue the course DEHY 115 we will gradually include more short answer and long answer questions. This is to test both your recognition memory and your recall memory. This provides a more comprehensive assessment of your knowledge. 6. Different cognitive demands: Recall is generally considered more challenging than recognition, as it requires deeper processing and retrieval strategies. 4 Properties and Functions of Blood Dr. Randy Brilz DEHY 114 January 2, 2025 What is Blood? Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells  Is specialized fluid of connective tissue Contains cells suspended in a fluid matrix  Functions of Blood 1. Transport of dissolved substances 2. Regulation of pH and ions 3. Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites 4. Defense against toxins and pathogens 5. Stabilization of body temperature  Physical Characteristics of Blood Color range Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red Oxygen-poor blood is dull red pH must remain between 7.35–7.45 Slightly alkaline Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature 5-6 Liters or about 6 quarts /body  Blood Plasma Composed of approximately 90 percent water Includes many dissolved substances –Nutrients, Salts (metal ions) –Respiratory gases –Hormones –Proteins, Waste products  Plasma Proteins Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure Clotting proteins – help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured Antibodies – help protect the body from antigens  Formed Elements Erythrocytes = red blood cells Leukocytes = white blood cells Platelets = cell fragments Characteristics of formed elements of Blood Characteristics of formed elements of Blood  Blood Just like how connective tissue attaches different body systems together for function and support, Blood is also a connective tissue that connects the body systems by transporting nutrients, oxygen throughout the body. Basic Composition of Blood Chemical Composition of Blood 1. Plasma (55%) 2. Red Blood Cells (45%) 3. White Blood Cells (Buffy Coat) (1%) Colour of Blood The colour of blood is always red - Oxygenated blood is bright red in colour and is usually found flowing through the arteries. It gets it bright colour from the electronic state of the iron ion which gives it a different optical characteristic. - As the blood flows through the body, it gets darker as a result of oxygen being replaced with carbon dioxide and getting 'dirty'. When it reaches back to the lungs, it is oxygenated. - The further away the blood gets from the heart, the darker is becomes venous blood.  Temperature of Blood Temperature of blood in the body is the same as our internal body at around 98.6 Fahrenheit or 37 Celsius which fluctuates throughout the day, depending upon our circadian rhythm (lowest temp a few hours before we wake; highest 1-2 hours before bed) If blood is outside the body, the blood cells will die within a few hours and as like anything else will become the same temperature as its surroundings During a fever, the blood flow increases in the body Other Properties of Blood 1. Viscous (4–5 times thicker than water) 2. pH = 7.35-7.45 3. Volume varies between sexes / overall body size - 4-5 liters females - 5-6 liters males How long does one blood cell take to circulate through the body? For an average adult, ~ 45 seconds ! Mature red blood cells have no nucleus and cannot divide. They last about 4 months in circulation and are constantly being replaced. 180 million new red blood cells enter circulation each minute! General functions of blood 1) Transportation Oxygen from lungs to tissues, Carbon Dioxide from tissues to lungs Nutrients, electrolytes, and vitamins to cells Waste from cells to liver and kidney Hormones from their sites of secretion to their target organs  General functions of blood 2) Regulation - Buffers in blood keep the pH of the body at about 7.4 - Regulates the amount of fluid in tissues. - Regulates body temperature by distributing the heat produced in our muscles.  General functions of blood 3) Protection - Blood contains antibodies and other cells that fight against pathogens. - Blood contains things that protect us from losing too much blood if an injury occursBuffers in blood keep the pH of the body at about 7.4  Blood tests Know the difference between Hematocrit and Hemoglobin ….continued Information: Cryoprecipitate, often called "cryo," is a concentrated blood product made from plasma that contains essential clotting proteins.  When donating blood... How long will it take to replenish the pint of blood I donate? Your body will replace the blood volume (plasma) within 48 hours. It will take four to eight weeks for your body to completely replace the red blood cells you donated. Basic Composition of Blood Formed Elements in Blood Three types of formed elements: Thrombocytes (Platelets) Leukocytes (WBCs) Erythrocytes (RBCs) Where are Formed Elements made? 1. Process of blood cell & platelet formation in RED bone marrow of bones by stem cells. 2. These stem cells are called hemocytoblasts. 3. They produce all the blood's formed elements. 4. This process is called Erythropoiesis. Erythropoiesis = Formation of Red Blood Cells The production of red cells is stimulated by the hormone erythropoeitin released from the kidney in response to a decrease in oxygen supply.  What drives Erythropoiesis? Your body's sensitivity to oxygen levels regulates erythropoiesis. If your tissues don't have enough oxygen (hypoxia), your body will ramp up red blood cell production. More red blood cells mean there's more oxygen flowing to your tissues and cells. A hormone called erythropoietin triggers erythropoiesis. Erythropoietin (EPO) Is a hormone that is naturally made by kidneys Kidneys & liver stimulate production of RBC's when O2 levels are low Stimulates stem cell division Increases maturation of RBC’s by increasing the rate of hemoglobin production What stimulates production of erythropoietin? The partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) directly regulates EPO (erythropoietin) production. The lower the pO2, the greater the production of EPO. Indirectly, low hemoglobin levels stimulate EPO production.  Hypoxia Hypoxia is a state in which oxygen is not available in sufficient amounts at the tissue level to maintain adequate homeostasis; this can result from inadequate oxygen delivery to the tissues either due to low blood supply or low oxygen content in the blood (hypoxemia). Hemoglobin Requires: Vitamin B12 (Extrinsic factor by food we eat) Or Vit.B12 (Intrinsic factor produced by large intestine; required for production of RBC’s) B6 (Converts iron to hemoglobin) Folic acid (Required for production of RBC’s) Iron (Required to form hemoglobin) Where is Hemoglobin made? Hemoglobin is produced in the liver. We need protein, iron, and vitamin B12 in our diets to maintain its supplies. What drives production of Hemoglobin? Red blood cell (RBC) production (erythropoiesis) takes place in the bone marrow under the control of the hormone erythropoietin (EPO). Juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney produce erythropoietin in response to decreased oxygen delivery (as in anemia or hypoxia) Hemoglobin molecule  Hemopoiesis Hemopoiesis: The production of blood cells and platelets which occurs in the bone marrow. Erythropoiesis Regulation Causes of hypoxia include: Anemia, disease, high altitude, trauma, blocked vessel Blood Components Review of Today's Topics: 1. Properties of blood (what is largest component? Smallest?) 2. Formed elements (main types) 3. Functions of blood (3 main functions) 4. Purpose of Erythropoiesis ? Review of Today's Topics….. 5. Hemoglobin (where is it found) 6. What type of tissue is blood?  Answers: 1. Monocyte (White blood cell is the largest cell by size). The largest component of blood is plasma at 55% of total blood volume which is 90% water. Platelets are the smallest part of blood by size. The smallest component of blood volume are the platelets! 2. Formed elements: Thrombocytes, Leukocytes, Erythrocytes 3. Three main functions of blood: Transportation: eg. carry oxygen to tissues/organs, remove carbon dioxide/wastes to outside the body, Regulation: eg. Responds to high/lows of pH and fluid levels in the tissues, Protection: eg. Fights off infection, prevents loss of blood  Answers: 4. Purpose of Erythropoiesis: constantly forms RBC’s 5. Hemoglobin is found inside RBC’s 6. Blood is a type of connective tissue Structures of Blood Dr. Randy Brilz DEHY 114 January 6, 2025  Blood : Is specialized fluid of connective tissue Contains cells suspended in a fluid matrix  Formed Elements in Blood Three types of formed elements: Leukocytes (WBCs) Thrombocytes (Platelets) Erythrocytes (RBCs) Types of Blood Cells There are 3 kinds of cells found in blood: 1) Erythrocytes – red blood cells that transport oxygen Contain hemoglobin (a protein that contains iron) that carries oxygen. Hemoglobin and oxygen bound together make the blood appear red. The more oxygen is being carried, the brighter the red color. Oxygenated blood going to the tissues is bright red; de- oxygenated blood going back to the lungs is dark red. After the red cells give off the oxygen to the tissues, they pick up carbon dioxide molecules and transport them back to the lungs where they are exhaled.  1.Erythrocytes No nucleus or cellular organelles Cannot divide Benefits: Efficient transport of gases No repair Low energy demands Cannot ‘steal’ O2 from other cells/tissues  1.Erythrocytes Biconcave discs Benefits: High surface to volume ratio Stackable Stacks referred to as a rouleaux Bendable and flexible **Being stackable, bendable & flexible =smooth flow through small blood vessels & capillaries 1.Erythrocytes Life span Typically not more than 4 months ~1% of circulating RBCs are replaced each day Count RBCs form 99.9% of the formed elements ~5.4 million/ml (males) ~4.8 million/ml (females) Hemoglobin (Hb) Protein molecule accounts for more than 95% of RBC’s intracellular protein Composed of: 4 subunits 2 alpha chains 2 beta chains Each chain has: 1 heme (pigment) group Ring with 1 iron in the center Hemoglobin (Hb) Function: Binds and transports O2 and CO2 Hb attached to O2 = oxyhemoglobin Bright red O2 attaches to iron Weak bond Hb NOT attached to O2 = deoxyhemoglobin Dark red Low O2 conditions (peripheral capillaries) Hb binds CO2 = carbaminohemoglobin CO2 binds to globin Weak bond  2.Leukocytes 2) Leukocytes – white blood cells that protect against infection and produce antibodies. There are 5 different kinds of leukocytes: Neutrophils – defend by phagocytosis and enzymatic destruction Eosinophils – involved in inflammatory allergic reactions Basophils – involved in inflammatory allergic reactions Lymphocytes Monocytes 2.Leukocytes Largest of blood cells Have nuclei & organelles Are mobile and are attracted to damaged tissue via inflammation Made in the red bone marrow (leukopoiesis) Functions: Defend body against pathogens Remove toxins, wastes & abnormal cells Destroyed by macrophages in liver & spleen Normal Count - 4500 -11000/ml  2.Leukocytes Leukocytes can leave the blood through vessel walls and travel to an area of infection. There they engulf the invaders by the process of phagocytosis. If the pathogens (disease producing organisms) are too numerous, they may destroy the leukocytes. Pus is a collection of dead and living bacteria together with dead and living leukocytes. Changes in the numbers of the different leukocytes can reveal different disorders. All leukocytes are important to the immune system. WBCs are also produced in the bone marrow but must mature in the thymus before being functional.  2. Leukocytes 2 large groups: 1. Granulocytes Secretory granules 2. Agranulocytes No visible secretory granules 2. Leukocytes Granulocytes Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils 2. Leukocytes Agranulocytes 1. Monocytes, 2. Lymphocytes 2. Leukocytes 3 types of WBCs are able to phagocytize 1. Neutrophils – 100% in Blood 2. Eosinophils – 100% in Blood 3. Monocytes - 70% in Tissue 30% in Blood  Phagocytosis 1. Chemotaxis & Adherence to microbe 2. Ingestion of microbe 3. Formation of phagosome 4. Fusion of phagosome with a lysosome = Phagolysosome 5. Digestion 6. Formation of the residual body containing indigestible material 7. Discharge of waste materials Neutrophils Differential count 50-70% Granular cells with lysosomal enzymes and bactericidal compounds Usually are first at an injury site Attack bacteria by engulfing and digesting them (degranulation) Release enzymes to damage membranes of pathogens Life span 10-12 hours (in blood) Then enter tissues Form pus once dead Eosinophils Differential count 1-4% Granular cells Attack pathogens coated with antibodies Protozoa, cellular debris, allergens Release chemical mediators that attack large parasites (worms) Involved during allergic reactions Life span Minutes to days Basophils Differential count