AP World Notes - The New World 1450-1800 PDF

Lin 1 The New World 1450-1800: Contact, Commerce, and Colonization Introduction - The rise of the West from the 15th and 18th centuries involved distant explorations and conquests resulting in a heightening and redefining of relationships among world societies. - The Americ...

Lin 1 The New World 1450-1800: Contact, Commerce, and Colonization Introduction - The rise of the West from the 15th and 18th centuries involved distant explorations and conquests resulting in a heightening and redefining of relationships among world societies. - The Americas and other world areas were joined to the world network, while older regions had increased contacts. (Trade became so significant that new relationships emerged among societies). New Technology - Technological improvements during the 15th century changed the equation. - Deep-draft, round-hulled ships were able to sail in the Atlantic’s waters. - Improved metalwork techniques allowed the vessels to carry armaments far superior to the weapons aboard ships of other societies. - The compass and better mapmaking improved navigational skills. - 3 G’s: God, Gold, Glory Portugal Leads - The initiative for Atlantic exploration came from Portugal. - Prince Henry the Navigator directed explorations motivated by Christian missionary zeal, the excitement of discovery, and a thirst for wealth. - From 1434, Portuguese vessels, searching for a route to India, traveled ever farther southward along the African coast. In 1488, they passed the Cape of Good Hope. - Circumnavigate: sail or travel all the way around (something, especially the world). - Vasco de Gama reached India in 1497. - Many voyages soon followed. (One blown off course, reached Brazil) - By 1514, the Portuguese had reached Indonesia and China. - In 1542, they arrived in Japan and began Catholic missionary activity. - Fortresses were established in African and Asian ports. Spain Follows - The Spanish quickly followed the Portuguese example. - Columbus reached the Americas in 1492, mistakenly calling their inhabitants Indians.  Lin 2 - Spain gained papal approval for its claims over most of Latin America; a later decision gave Brazil to Portugal. - Sixteenth century expeditions brought the Spanish as far north as the southwestern United States. - Ferdinand Magellan began a Spanish voyage in 1519 that circumnavigated the globe. As a result, Spain claimed the Philippines. The Atlantic World - The development of new Atlantic sea lanes began an epochal transformation in world history: overseas colonies - When the Europeans arrived in the Americas, they did something they could not have done in Africa and Asia - they conquered native peoples and set up full colonies. These colonies existed for the enrichment of Europeans and their monarchs. - “Discovery” of the Americas were accidental: Columbus did not set out to discover new lands, he was looking for new ways to reach lands already well-known to Europeans: Japan and China. No one expected he would encounter a “New World.” - Soon after more Europeans arrived with tools of conquest: steel armor, weapons, horses, and above all, deadly germs. These pathogens, more than anything else, decimated Amerindian populations. - Material advantages and local allies enabled Europeans to colonize to an extent that was impossible in Asia or Africa. Peoples in Africa and Asia enjoyed the benefits of strong, stable empires. Perhaps more importantly, they had shared immunities with the Europeans that made them far less vulnerable than the Amerindians. - Lack of labor force from Amerindians led to large-scale introduction of African slave laborers. The connections between Africa, Europe, and the Americas are known together as the “Atlantic system.” The Europeans repeated economic benefits from this system, especially in the form of precious metals. These metals finally gave Europeans something to trade for Asian goods. - These developments brought together societies/ecosystems that had been separate for millions.  Lin 3 First Encounters - October 12, 1492, on behalf of Spain, Columbus reached San Salvador, in what it's now the Bahamas and ushered in a new era of world history. - Columbus’s goals were to make money and Christianize the world, which drove the European colonization of the Americas. - These goals shaped the Atlantic system, the slave trade and interactions with the Amerindians. - Colobus mislabeled Tainos as “Indians,” as he believed he had reached India - Described the Tainos as a naive, child-like people with no religion, ready for conversation to Chrisitnaity. Other explorers shared this perception. - At the same time, Europeans developed a contradictory image of the natives as wild, savage, and even cannibalistic. These contrasting images are structured. European perceptions of the Amerindian peoples for centuries. - Tainos possessed gold (found initially hanging as pendants from their noses). - Tainos told them of “savage” Caribs, neighboring tribes. Amerindians’ First Impressions - Historians know less about Amerindian perceptions of Europeans. - European metal goods and military prowess impressed Amerinidnas. - European hair, beards, breath, and bad manners often repulsed them. - They did not especially notice the Europeans’ different skin color. Only the Europeans were in the habit of making such a distinction. - Amerindians quickly noticed that Europeans were unable to live off the land. - Indians realized not just the strange, hairy people bearing metal weapons were odd trading partners, but that they meant to stay and to force the local population to labor for them. This is how European explorers became conquistadors. First Conquests - Columbus claimed there was gold on Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). This led the Spanish crown to give financial support for Columbus to carry out further expeditions. Consequently, the expeditions grew larger. - Perspective - in 1492, Columbus made the voyage with 87 men in 3 small ships. Ten years later, 2500 men crossed the Atlantic. - The Spanish experimented with institutions of colonial rule, ultimately creating a model for the rest of the New World colonies.  Lin 4 - Encomiendas and encomenderos: favored settlers granted the “right” to coerce Indian labor - Amerindian resistance - Just 2 years after Columbus’s first contact, starving Spaniards raided Amerindian villages. When the native peoples fought back, the Spaniards responded by enslaving them for work in the gold mines. Encomenderos paid special taxes on extracted precious metals. This practice led to the rise of a new social class of rich encomenderos. - However, the extraction of precious metals in the Caribbean was not sustainable. As resources depleted, Spaniards sought new territories to conquer. - Encountered some larger, more complex and more militarized societies on the mainland in Central America - Such societies were unprepared for European assaults. - Powerful empires had existed amongst these societies for centuries, but they were unprepared for European assaults. One particular disadvantage was that warfare among these peoples was more ceremonial. It was not intended to totally destroy enemies. It was meant to subdue them and force them to pay tribute. As a result, wealthy Mesoamerican peoples were vulnerable to European attacks. Encomienda System: American Feudalism - Once Spain established a foothold in the New World, thousands of Spaniards arrived to build a new colonial empire. - At the top were peninsulares - the select group of Spanish officials sent to govern the colonies. - Below them were the criollos/creoles - people born in the colonies to Spanish parents. Because they weren’t born in Spain, they were looked down upon by the Spanish monarchy and were consequently barred from high positions. Yet, because they were the children of the Spaniards, the creoles were educated and wealthy and after many generations, they were able to organize and demand recognition. - Below the creoles were the mestizos - those with European and Native American ancestry. Followed by the mulattos - those with European and African ancestry. - Lastly, the Native Americans - had little to no freedom and worked on estates and in mines. Encomienda (Continued) - To run the empire, viceroys - appointed governors of each of the 5 regions of New Spain established the encomienda system, which was a sort of feudal system.  Lin 5 - The system provided the peninsulares with land and a specified number of native laborers. In return the peninsulares were expected to protect the natives and convert them to Christianity. - Shocked at the treatment of some of the natives, Christian missionaries appealed to the viceroys, emperor, and the Catholic church to improve the natives’ lot. Some in the empire agreed that reform was needed, but disastrously, the reform that was viewed as most important was indeed for more workers. - Those new workers were African slaves. Not only was this a cruel and iconic way to solve the problem, (relieve the burden on one group by burning another), it did not improve the lives of the natives. - Both slaves and natives were at the bottom of the social pyramid and neither had significant rights. Cortés and Conquest (1 of 2) - In the early 16th Century, Moctezuma II took the Aztec throne. Soon after a conquistador named Hernan Cortes arrived. What the Aztecs thought about these newcomers is difficult to tell. - According to some accounts, some thought that Cortes and his men were the god, Quetzalcoatl (Quetzal-cottle) and his entourage. However, some historians argue that these omens were the efforts of factions trying to undermine the throne. - Aztec emperor Moctezuma II sent emissaries with gits, but the Aztecs didn’t prepare for military engagement. - Hernán Cortés arrived with eleven ships, 500 men, sixteen horses, and arms: became model conquistador when he heard that potentially wealthier land was available to the west of Cuba. - When the expedition arrived near present-day Veracruz, (Mexico) Cortes acquired two translators, including the daughter of a local Indian noble family, who became known as Dona Marina AKA La Malinche. - With the assistance of Dona marina and other native allies. Cortes marched his troops to Tenochtitlan. He was extremely impressed with the city. Cortés and Conquest: How did they do it? (2 of 2) - Spaniards able to conquer Aztecs because: - Relied on alliances with local tribes who built up resentment toward Aztec rule, the Tlaxcalans (Tlax-calins - phonetic)  Lin 6 - The Spaniards’ method of warfare gave them an advantage over the Aztecs. Aztecs warfare was more focused on capturing enemies, the Spanish used their superior weaponry for complete destruction. - Aztecs were not familiar with Spanish technology, such as gunpowder, steel swords, horses, or war dogs. - Aztecs allowed Cortés to enter their city of Tenochtilan because they didn’t know what to make of him. - In 1519, Cortés captured Tenochtitlan and Moctezuma, who then ruled as the Spanish puppet emperor. Aztec Rebellion and Defeat - Following the Spanish massacre of unarmed Aztecs, the Aztecs rose in rebellion, learning quickly from their initial defeats by the Spanish. - Spanish forces massacred a group of unarmed Aztecs in Tenochtitlan’s central square, a massive revolt broke out. - The Spaniards brought Moctezuma up to the palace walls to negotiate with the attacking crowd, but he was killed. The Aztecs kept up their barrage of stones, spears, and arrows - striking and killing Moctezuma. Cortés returned to reassert control, but realizing this was impossible, gathered his loot and left. He left behind hundreds of Spaniards, many of whom were dragged up the temple steps and sacrificed by Aztecs priests. = The Spanish were forced to withdraw, leaving hundreds behind. - HOWEVER, the Spanish and Tlaxcalan eventually defeated the Aztecs. - Starvation, disease (smallpox), lack of artillery, and Cortés’s ability to force Amerindian alliances led to Aztec defeat. - More Aztecs died from disease than fighting - Cortés became governor of the colony “New Spain” - The Spanish learned how to be effective at conquest. - Needed to be swift - Removed symbols of legitimate authority - Unintentional spread of disease was the real advantage. (smallpox) The Incas - The next major Spanish conquest was South America’s greatest empire, the Incas. 13th Century - Quechua-speaking people in the Andes near present-day Cuzco, Peru  Lin 7 - South America’s greatest empire - they rose in power through a combination of local conquest and intermarriage between elites. Eventually they Incan empire spanned from Chile to southern Colombia. Total pop: 6 million people - Political power relied on tribute and commercial exchange extracted from agrarian bases to finance communication and military networks. Villagers paid tribute to local elites in the form of labor services. Taxes helped finance the vast military and sophisticated communication system that held the empire together. Incas developed a system in which runners used networks of stone highways to quickly relay messages to military units. - Communication system could not exist without a wealthy agrarian base - In 1532, Francisco Pizarro found a divided empire, a situation they quickly learned to exploit. By the 16th century, the Incas had begun to overstretch themselves. As they expanded northward, they began to lose touch with their base in Cuzco. Similar to Cortes’s conquest of the Aztecs, Pizarro was able to exploit the fissures in the Incan empire in order to bring down the ruling elites. - Laid a trap and defeated Incan ruler Atahualpa (last leader of the Inca Empire) and the Incas in 1533. Pizarro invited Athualpa to meet in the town of Cajamarca (Peru). As columns of Inca warriors and servants covered with colorful plumage (feathers) and plates of silver and gold entered the main square, the Spanish soldiers were awed. Pizarro’s guns and horses shocked the Incan forces. Athualpa himself fell into Spanish hands, later decapitated. - The European defeat of the New World’s two great empires, the Aztecs and Incas, introduced a new scale of imperial expansion and provided Europe with great wealth and a market for their products. Treaty of Tordesillas – East of Portugal, West of Spain Northern European Expeditions - In the 16th century, the exploratory initiative moved from the Portuguese and Spanish to strong northern European states—Britain, Holland, and France. - They had improved oceanic vessel design, while Portugal and Spain were busy digesting their colonial gains. The British naval victory over Spain in 1588 left general ocean dominance to northern nations. - The French first crossed the Atlantic in 1534 and soon established settlements in Canada. - The British reached North America in 1497, beginning colonization of its east coast during the seventeenth century. - The Dutch also had holdings in the Americas. - They won control of Indonesia from the Portuguese by the early 17th century, and in the middle of the century established a relay settlement on the southern tip of Africa.  Lin 8 - French, Dutch, and British traders received government-awarded monopolies of trade in the newly reached regions, but the chartered companies acted without much official supervision. - They gained greater profits and acted like independent political entities. Exchanges and Expansions in North America (1 of 3) - Expanding Mainland Colonies - Dutch relied on commerce, British and French exploited natural resources in colonies - British established farms, French relied on fur trade. - British approach to access to resource was to disposes Amerindians of their lands - Grew variety of crops, including wheat, rye, barley, tobacco, rice and indigo, along Atlantic seaboard - Eventually resulted in a souring of relations between Native Americans and colonists and they dispossessed Amerinidans of their lands from the Atlantic Ocean and the Appalachian mountains = wars between natives and newcomers also - Dutch and French colonies depended on natives - French relied on fur trade - The English took over Holland’s New Netherland colony, renaming it New York in 1664. Exchanges and Expansions in North America (2 of 3) - Expanding Mainland Colonies - Frnech claims encompassed a vast territory including eastern Canada, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi Valley - Beaver crucial to trade between Europeans and Amerindians - trapping required familiarity with the beavers’ habits and habitats, which Europeans lacked. - French depended on Indian knowledge in regard to the fur trade - Reliance forced French to adapt to Native American ways - French gave gifts, participated in Native American diplomatic rituals and even married into Native American families. - French-Indian children, metis, played an important role in New France as interpreters, traders and guides - The French colonization of the Americas rested more on cooperation than on conquest, because of their reliance on Indians as trading partners, military allies, and mates  Lin 9 Exchanges and Expansions in North America (3 of 3) - As French and English traders introduced guns into the exchange networks, they initiated an arms race among Native Americans. - To get more guns, Native Americans had to collect more skins, which resulted in the depletion of the beaver population in heavily trapped areas. That pushed Natives to expand their hunting/trapping zones, which heightened conflicts between groups now competing for hunting territories. - Scarcity of beaver led to competition between groups - Native Americans also wanted alcohol - allowed them to overlook practices that forbid overhunting. - From the mid 17th century, British and French focus don sugar plantations The Plantation Complex in the Caribbean (1 of 2) - Relied on slave labor to produce sugar for export - much more labor intensive than tobacco. Had to be processed near cane fields, which meant mills needed to be built and required massive amounts of labor. - Sugar was a “killing” crop - It flourished in hot and humid climates that fostered diseases. (Disease flourished as much as sugar did.) - Slaves faced inadequate food, atrocious living conditions, and filthy sanitation - Treated slaves as nonhumans - The average life expectancy was three years - With grueling work schedules of seven days a week, sixteen-hour days, some slaves dropped dead from exhaustion. The Plantation Complex in the Caribbean (2 of 2) - Slaves resisted as they could - Some armed resistance but more common was flight - Others resisted with foot dragging - being slow to produce, pilfering, and sabotage - No single colonial power dominated the Caribbean - English took Jamaica from the Spanish and made it to the premier site of Caribbean sugar by the 1740s. The Dutch seized the ANtilles, and when the French took Saint Domingue (present-day Haiti) they created one of the wealthiest societies based on slavery of all time. Eclipsed those of all the Spanish and English islands combined. - French Saint Domingue produced nearly half the world’s supply of sugar and coffee by 1789.  Lin 10 - The Atlantic system benefited elite Europeans who amassed new fortunes by exploiting the colonies’ rich soil (which they eroded) and tropical climate and African slave labor. New Consequences for World History (*) - The creation of a new international pool for exchanges of food, diseases, and manufactured products - The forming of a more inclusive world economy - The opening of some parts of the world to Western colonization. Protestant Reformation - 1517: Martin Luther posted “95 Theses” on church door in Wittenberg, Germany - Protested the Catholic Church’s use of indulgences. Latin Bible, celibacy for priests, idea of Pope - Luther is excommunicated - Luther believed salvation was obtained only through faith in Christ, NOT on following Church practices. - Viewed Christian participation in commerce favorably - Luther’s ideas spread rapidly via prints. - Printing Press is heavily used during this time period (*) Martin Luther (cont’d) - Was the first successful heretic (heresy = going against religion) - Read the scriptures of Paul closely and concluded that the church had misinterpreted Paul. - 1517: posted 95 Theses - 95 points where Martin Luther disagreed with the Church. Posted it on the door of the Wittenberg Church. - Believed there are only 2 sacraments - baptism and communion - Believed priests should be allowed to marry - Protested the church’s use of indulgences and the Latin Bible. - Justification - Believes that if an individual has faith in God, God makes that person just = worthy of salvation. Became the chief teaching of the Protestant Reformation. More Martin Luther - Called on the German princes to overthrow the papacy and establish a reformed German church. - Was excommunicated from the Church in January 1521.  Lin 11 - Edict of Worms - a decree that made Luther an outlaw within the empire. His works were burned and Luther himself was captured and delivered to the emperor. - Luther’s ruler, Frederick of Saxony, would not allow Luther to be killed. Instead, he sent him into hiding and protected him when he returned to Wittenberg in 1522. - RESULTS: Protestant Reformation, 30 Years War End of Luther - Luther’s religious movement became a revolution. - He gained the support of many German rulers among the numerous states that made up the Holy Roman Empire. Rulers quickly took control of the Catholic churches in their territories and made themes at churches, whose affairs were supervised by the government. - Luther set up new religious services to replace Catholic mass - featured Bible readings, preaching the word of God, and songs. - Lutheranism became the first Protestant faith. - Ends with Peace of Augsburg - (1555) allowed for the coexistence of Catholicism and Lutheranism in Germany. Results of Protestant Reformation - Spread of belief that salvation can be achieved through faith alone - Creation of new Protestant churches throughout Northern Europe and America - Supported culture of questioning of political/religious leadership - Papal power decreases -> monarchs’ power increases - Desire to read Bible -> Increase in literacy - Increase in status of women -> promotion of love between husband and wife - Growing literacy and the spread of the printing press -> spread of new religious ideas Protestant Developments - Second Protestant Reformation: Henry VIII - Pope refused to annul first marriage to Catherine of Aragon as she had not produced a male heir - Jean Calvin Calvinism - Predestination (God predetermined the people who will be saved) Jean Calvin (1509-1564) - Emphasized moral regeneration through church teachings and laid out a doctrine of predestination - the notion that each person is “predestined for damnation or salvation even before birth.”  Lin 12 - Those who followed the new faith of Luther = Protestants - Protestants promised that their reformed version of Chrisitanity provided both an answer to individual spiritual needs and a new moral foundation for community life. Appealed to commoners and elites alike. - Although Protestants were rarely a majority before the 17th century, the new ideas gained a wide following in the German states, France, Switzerland, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, England and Scotland. The Catholic Reformation - Catholicims is threatened by sudden and extreme interest in Protestantism - Roman Catholic Church launches Counter Reformation or Catholic Reformation - Council of Trent, church assembly - had 25 sessions: abandon sale of indulgences = ways to reduce punishment for sins. Catholic leaders reaffirmed the church’s doctrines. Also enacted reforms to answer the Protestants’ assault on clerical corruption. - Goal: incite Catholic fervor into Europeans, assert personal relationship with Christ through Church - make sure church does not lose power/legitimacy - New missionary efforts - Jesuits: Americas and Asia - religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola to counter the inroads of the Protestant Ref. Active in politics, education and missionary work. Religious Divisions - Protestantism changes politics in 16th century Europe - Holy Roman Emperor remained Catholic, but German princes turned to Protestantism (resented power of Pope and HRE) - 1618-1648: Thirty Years War. - Ends with Treaty of Westphalia (1648) Thirty Years War - 30 Years War - War between Protestant princes and the Catholic emperor for religious predominance in Central Europe; a struggle for regional control among Catholic powers (the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs and French); and a bid for independence (from Spain) by the Dutch who wanted to trade and worship as they pleased. - Began as a struggle between the Protestants and Catholics within the Habsburg Empire, but it soon became a war for superiority in Europe. - In total, fighting, disease, and famine wiped out ⅓ of the German states’ urban population and ⅖ of their rural population.  Lin 13 Results - Peace of Westphalia - (1648) stated that as there was a rough balance of power between Protestant and Catholic states, they would simply have to put up with each other. - The Dutch won independence, but the war’s enormous costs provoked severe discontent in Spain, France, and England. - Central Europe was so devastated that it did not recover in economic or demographic terms for more than a century. - Transformed warfare - most medieval warfare had been sieges between nobles leading strong armies, centralized states fielding standing armies now waged decisive, grand-scale campaigns. - War also changed the ranks of soldiers: local enlisted men defending their king, country, and faith gave way to hired mercenaries or criminals doing force service. Even officers, who previously obtained their stripes by royal decree, had to earn them. - 18th century - Europe’s wars featured huge standing armies boasting a professional officer corps, deadly artillery, and long supply lines bringing food and ammunition to the front = the cost of war began to soar. France - After the Hundred Years War drove English from France- France began to unify and centralize authority in a strong monarchy. - Religious differences among people- French Protestants (Huguenots) vs Catholics - St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre - (1572) Catholic crowds rampaged through the streets of Paris murdering Huguenot (Protestant) men, women, and children, dumping their bodies into the Seine River. 3000 killed in Paris and 10,000 in provincial towns. - Another round of warfare brought Henry IV to the throne. He had to convert to Catholicism in order to be king. - 1598- Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes (pronounced nahnt) - proclamation that declared France a Catholic country, but also tolerated some Protestant worship. - Henry IV becomes first Bourbon king- Bourbons ruled France until 1792 - Cardinal Richelieu (Catholic advisor to Bourbons AKA the king) - helped strengthen the French crown. - Instead of sharing power with the aristocracy, the king and his counselors wanted him to rule free of external checks to create an absolute monarchy. - New bureaucratic class created= noblesse de la robe - a class of hereditary nobles who acquired their rank through holding a high state office. - Cardinal Mazarin- successor=prepared France even further to be a strong nation under Louis XIV Absolute monarchy - Characteristics: - Divine Right: similar to mandate of heaven in China  Lin 14 - Strong, professionalized army - High taxes to support wars - Utilize bureaucracies - King Louis XIV (reigned 1643-1715) - “I am the state” - Patron of the arts, built the Palace of Versailles - teeming with nobles from all over France seeking favor, dressing according to the king’s expensive fashion code, attending the latest tragedies, comedies, and concerts. - Stopped convening Estates-General (French parliament) and passed his own laws. King controlled all public power. - Sent bureaucrats to provinces - Created state-run manufacturing - Promoted internal economy to improve tax revenues for wars - Limited imports from other nations; uses colonies to provide raw materials - Absolute monarchies set up in Prussia, Spain, Austria-Hungary - modeled after the French. Parliamentary Monarchy - Britain used a parliamentary monarchy - King shared power with representatives selected by the nobility and upper urban classes. Had to consult Parliament to raise money (taxes). - 1642-1649: English Civil War - Assertion of Parliament’s power over the British monarch, Charles I. People who supported the King vs. people who wanted more power for Parliament. (3 wars) RESULT: King Charles I executed. - Glorious Revolution of 1689 - How it started: Subsequent monarchs who aspired to absolute rule came into conflict with Parliament, whose members insisted on shared sovereignty and the right of Protestant succession. - Overthrow of English King James II. Bloodless upheaval - King James II fled to France and Parliament offered the crown to William of Orange and his wife, Mary (both Protestants) - Significance of Parliamentary Monarchy - Right of revolution - Monarchs should be restrained by institutions that protect public - Power of parliament over king - Political groups can compete for influence Italian Renaissance vs. Northern Renaissance - Italian Renaissance - Challenged medieval intellectual religious values - Focused on humanism - City-states in Northern Italy - Northern Renaissance  Lin 15 - Studied more than Italian Renaissance - Intense religious devotion - Artists travel to Italy - Detailed realism, focus on nature - Landscape/genre painting - 1450: Johannes Gutenberg, invention of mechanical movable type printing press - France, Low Countries (Belgium/Neth.), Germany, England Northern Artistic Renaissance - Artists of Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands became interested in portraying their world realistically. (Also known as the Low Countries) - An increase in wealth supported these ventures. - Artists merged humanist ideas with Christianity. - Most notable: Jan van Eyck - was among the first to use oil paint, which enabled him to use a wide variety of colors and create fine details on his painting Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride. - Jan van Eyck imitated nature by observing reality and portraying details as best he could. - Other notable figures: Albrecht Durer, artist, Adoration of the Magi - Erasmus, writer, The Praise of Folly (1511) - Sir Thomas More, writer, Utopia (1516) Utopia = ideal society Niccolo Machiavelli - Author of The Prince, one of the most influential works on political power in the Western world. - The Prince discusses how to acquire and keep political power. - Rejected leadership based on Christian principles. - Power must be based on an understanding of human nature, which he believed was self-centered. - Believed that political activity should not be restricted by moral principles. “A prince acts on behalf of the state. For the sake of the state, he must be willing to let his conscience sleep.” - Was among the first to abandon morality as the basis for analyzing political activity. Had a profound influence on future leaders. Scientific Revolution - 17th and 18th centuries: New ideas in science that laid foundations for modern scientific thought - Create laws for nature based off of Greek and Islamic science - Copernicus (Polish) - Disproves Ptolemy’s geocentric theory  Lin 16 - Proves heliocentric theory - Galileo (Italian) - Confirms heliocentric theory using telescope - Observes motions of planets - Condemned by the Catholic church Ptolemaic System - Ptolemy - greatest astronomer of the ancient past (Roman) - Ptolemaic System - the universe is a series of concentric spheres (one inside the other). - Earth is the center of the universe, according to Ptolemy. - Geocentric - Earth is the center of the universe Enter Copernicus - Nicolaus Copernicus - Polish mathematician who believed that the universe was heliocentric = sun-centered. - Believed that planets revolved around the Sun. - Believed the moon revolves around the Earth. - Wrote On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres - Also believed that the apparent movement of the sun around the earth was really caused by the rotation of earth on its axis and the journey of earth around the sun each year. *Debunked Ptolemy’s theory. Scientific Revolution Cont. - William Harvey (English) - Circulatory system powered by heart - René Descartes (French) - “Father of Modern Philosophy” - Skeptical of accepted learning, emphasized the importance of his own mind and would only accept things his reasoning said were true. - “I think, therefore I am” - Isaac Newton (English mathematician) - Created the Universal Law of Gravitation - every object in the universe is attracted to every other by a force called gravity. - Impact - science is the only way to understand the universe, not religion. - Francis Bacon (English) - Empirical research: utilize observations, data. Created the Scientific Method - a systematic procedure for collecting/analyzing evidence.  Lin 17 Galileo - Galileo Galilei - Italian mathematician - Used a telescope to discover mountains on the moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter and sunspots. - Proved that “heavenly bodies” were composed of material substances, just as earth was. - Controversy: The Catholic Church ordered Galileo to abandon the Copernican idea because it threatened the church’s entire conception of the universe and contradicted the Bible. More Galileo - Galileo was convicted of heresy by the inquisition. - He was forced to recant his beliefs and lived the rest of his life under house arrest because he taught that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the solar system. - His book, The Index, was banned until 1822. Scientific Revolution, Cont. - Scientific institutes established to advance research - Growing belief that people could control and calculate environment - Insurance companies - Doctors attack healers - Deism: a god created the Earth, but it's only role was to set natural laws in motion - Reconciles religion with science - The West becomes a leading center for science research The Enlightenment - Scientific Revolution led to the Enlightenment - Change in attitudes about politics, society, economics - Continued scientific advances - Basic Beliefs: - Human beings are good but can be educated to be better - Reason is the key to truth - Religions that rely blindly on faith and do not tolerate diversity are wrong - Began with philosophes (French philosophers) meeting in salons - Denis Diderot: editor of the Encyclopédie, compilation of knowledge Islam (Gunpowder Empires), China, and Japan (1450-1750)  Lin 18 Prosperity in Asia - While Europe was facing religious wars, Asian empires were expanding and consolidating power, and experiencing flourishing trade. - Mughal and Ottoman Empires had effective and esteemed rulers. - Ming China gained worldwide recognition for its elegant manufacturers and its ability to govern an enormous, diverse population. Islamic Gunpowder Empires - Ottoman Empire - Safavid Dynasty - Mughal Empire Culture in the Islamic World - In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal expansion allowed for funding of cultural development. - Schools, building projects, books, artwork, and luxury goods. - Islamic cultural and intellectual life reflected the three distinct worlds, with each developing a relatively autonomous form of Muslim culture. Ottoman Empire - Muslim Ottoman Empire founded by Osman Bey = began to unify the people of eastern Turkey to challenge the Byzantine Empire - Controlled what is most of modern day Turkey by 1453. - Constantinople was capital city (renamed Istanbul) - Following Osman, Mehmed II rules between 1451-1481: He is also known as Mehmed the Conqueror - Tolerant of other religions more so than previous Muslim empires at first - Ottomans expanded (from Greece eastward to Persia and all the way around the Mediterranean into Egypt and N. Africa) - As the empire grew-so did religious persecution - To conquer large territories, Ottomans enslaved children of Christian subjects and turned them into warriors known as Janissaries. - Much of this expansion was under Selim I (1512) – Claimed to be rightful heir to Islamic tradition under Arab caliphs (Istanbul becomes center of Islamic civilization) - 8 years later - Suleiman I (the Magnificent) rose to power - Built up Ottoman military and encouraged study of the arts (Golden Age) - Tried to expand to Vienna (Austria) but unsuccessful Ottoman Expansion and World Trade - Ottoman expansion on land and European expansion by sea occurred roughly at the same time and were interconnected. - The Ottomans established control over trade routes interrupted by the Mongols and the Black Death, which helped spur their political expansion. - Looking to circumvent the Ottomans, European traders began exploring the Atlantic African coast to search for new routes to South and East Asia. - Looking for spices, silks, and slaves - Aided by new maritime technology - Portuguese went around Africa and onward to India - Ottoman authorities gained significant tax revenue from the caravan trade. - Maintained infrastructure and security along trade routes - By the early sixteenth century, the Ottomans controlled Constantinople and expansive  Lin 19 territories in southeastern Europe, Anatolia, and the eastern Mediterranean. - Blocked on the eastern front by the Safavids, the Ottomans pushed westward with the most powerful military in the world. - Throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, they conquered Athens, Egypt, Syria, and the Balkan territories – becoming a major player in EUropean affairs. - The Ottomans became a major sea power. - The largest armada in the world - Advanced cartography and maritime technology - Entered the Indian Ocean as a rival to the Portuguese. The Ottoman Empire and Egypt - Biggest threat to breakaway pressures in the Ottoman Empire was from Egypt in the seventeenth century. - Egypt, gained in 1517, was the Ottomans greatest conquest and wealthiest territory. - Mamluks (Arabic for “owned” or “possessed”) had ruled Egypt as an independent regime until the Ottoman conquest - Ottomans had allowed for Mamluks to remain - Mamluks enhanced power by the seventeenth century by: - Aligning themselves with Egyptian merchants and the ulama - Keeping taxes for themselves instead of spying the Ottoman administrators The Ottoman Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries - Koprulu reforms – financial reforms and anti corruption measures - Tried to take Vienna in 1683 but were unsuccessful - Treaty that ended Austro-Ottoman war resulted in substantial territorial losses, including Hungary - Influx of silver undermined Ottoman’s sixteenth-century version of a self-contained imperial economy, and opened up the Ottoman empire to trade with the rest of the world, producing breakaway regimes, inflation, and social discount. The Ottoman Cultural Synthesis - Ottoman culture was a blend of ethnic, religious, and linguistic elements. - Balanced military and administrative traditions with these of clerics - Allowed autonomy to minority Christian and Jewish faiths - Religious and education - Sophisticated education offered three systems: - Civil and military bureaucracy came from hierarchically organized schools that culminated in the palace schools at Topkapi. - Ulama judges emerged from elementary schools and went on to higher schools or madrasas. - Sufi masters came from tekkes, where they learned devotional strategies and religious knowledge. Science and the Arts - Ottoman intellectuals took an interest in European science. - Hungarian convert Ibrahim Muteferrika set up a printing press in Istanbul in 1729 and published works on European science, history, and geography. - Artists occasionally merged artistic traditions with new ideas in some instances (eg., portraiture) while keeping their own styles in other areas. - Popularization of elite artistic traditions: The Tulip Period - Growing Ottoman demand for luxury goods, such as lemons, soap, pepper, metal tools, coffee, and wine  Lin 20 Ottoman Empire Significance - Lasted to 1922 - Greatly expanded the reach of Islam - kept eastern Europe in constant state of flux-allowed powers of Western Europe to remain dominant - Created a strong military (Janissaries) Safavid Dynasty - Chief rivals to Ottomans to the east (modern day Iran) - Centralized state based on military conquest and was dominated by Shia Islam (strong focus on religion) - Never as wealthy or as powerful as Ottomans or Mughal empires - Ruled from 1501-1722 Architecture and the Arts - Safavid rulers uniquely sought to project both accessibility and authority in their architecture. - Isfahan was open to the outside world unlike the Ottoman’s Topkapi in Istanbul or the Red Forts of the Mughals. - Isfahan’s centerpiece was the great plaza next to the royal palace and mosque, seven times the size of European plazas. - Safavid artists displayed stunning cultural flourishing with their illustrated books, ornate silks and carpets, tiles and mosaics, and elaborate calligraphy. Safavid Culture, Shiite State - Global trade both strengthened Safavid rivals and enabled a period of creativity in the arts and architecture. - The Safavid Empire in Persia gave Shiism a home base and location for displaying Shiite culture. - Mixed political and religious system based on Shiism and loyalty to royal family - Shah Abbas I (r. 1587-1929) created a cultural life based on Shiite religious principles and Persian royal absolutism. - The new capital city of Isfahan displayed the wealth and royal power of the Safavid state. Mughal Empire - Akbar (Babur’s grandson 1556-1605) - unified India even more under policy of religious toleration (Hinduism and Islam practiced openly) - Skilled in alliance building, using favors and marriages to build the empire. - As Muslims and Hindus lived side by side for over a century, it resulted in a golden age - Taj Mahal is built under Shah Jahan Mughal Commerce - Mughal trade brought increasing wealth, and their power limited European intrusions into their empire. - Mughal rulers allowed the Portuguese, then other European merchants, access to a handful of their ports, on the outskirts of their empire. - Mughal rulers used newfound wealth to sponsor monumental feats of architecture and art, but the wealth also caused friction among Indian rulers, merchants, and poorer regions.  Lin 21 Mughal Empire - After Akbar - two changes forever change India: - Religious toleration ended (Under Aurangezeb-pro-muslim policies created; wars against portions of India not under Mughal control; taxes (jizya) against Hindu’s return; Hindu temples destroyed; Indu’s were persecuted towards the 18th century-began to fight back) - Arrival of Europeans - Portuguese and British fight over Indian ocean trade routes; British East India Company begins to conquer Indian territory. Power and Culture under the Mughals - Mughal high culture depended on agricultural taxes, silver, and openness to foreign trade. - Religious diversity encouraged a culture that included non-Muslims. - Islamic traditions were dominant in the political and judicial spheres, while Muslims and Hindus alike participated in the flourishing arts. Gunpowder Empires - Each of these three empires had considerable military success using the newly developed firearms, especially cannons and small arms, in the course of their empires. - Autocratic rule: emperors impose their will on the state. - Harem politics: women often influenced policies, selections - Long distance trade is important to all three empires. Prosperity in Ming China - Similar to Mughal India, Ming China’s economy also soared in the sixteenth century. - Ming China confined European merchants to port cities. - European silver from the Americas contributed to China’s growing economy, allowing money rather than goods to circulate. - One of the measures of the Ming’s great economic prosperity was the surge in the Chinese population. - China made up one-third of the world’s population in the mid-seventeenth century, with spectacular growth in cities. - Urban prosperity enabled women to work in a wide variety of positions, such as entertainers, courtesans, midwives, healers, poets, sorcerers, matchmakers, artists, and book traders. - Politically, sixteenth-century Ming faced internal discord and problems, but thrived economically, resulting in population growth and territorial expansion. China in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries - From Ming to Qing in China - Persistence of local autonomy and accelerating economic and social changes culminated in collapse of Ming dynasty in 1644 - Administrative and Economic Problems - Zhu Yijun, the Wanli emperor (1573-1620) rand other emperors were largely ceremonial, with little actual control over the vast bureaucracy - Expanding opportunities for trade led many individuals to circumvent official rules - Pirates, supposedly Japanese but in fact often Chinese, wreaked havoc on Chinese coast - In good times, these “pirates” acted like a merchant elite, mingling with imperial officials and moving among the mosaic of East Asian cultures. - Influx of silver from the New World caused severe economic problems - By the early seventeenth century, silver imports exceeded domestic bullion  Lin 22 (uncoined gold or silver) twenty times to one - Chinese economy monetized, as silver became the primary currency - In times of silver abundance, peasants faced inflation, in times of shortage, peasants scrambled to pay taxes. - These dislocations often led to revolts Russian Expansion, 1462–1795 Background History - Moscow AKA Muscovy, like Japan and China, used territorial expansion and commercial networks to consolidate a powerful state. - Muscovy spanned parts of Europe, much of Northern Asia, numerous North Pacific islands, and even (for a time) a corner of N. America (Alaska). - Prior to 1800 - Russia was predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian - 14th century - Mongol rule of Muscovy princes waned (Princes grow in power) Used model of government and religion based on Constantinople. - Eventually Russian Czars (Tsars) - established Russian Orthodox Church - Russia did not experience Renaissance or Protestant Reformation because of the Mongols - Russia is in a good position for trade - can trade w/ East and West. In the East, Russian expansion to Siberia resulted in good fur trade - can export to Europe/China. In the West, Russia could import cloth from England. They had access to the Silk Road to the South and could access Indian and Persian silk. Russia exported grain, leather, iron, and wood. - Russia is tightly linked to Europe - All capitals - Kiev, St. Petersburg, and Moscow, as they had previous trade and political relationships with Europe that strengthened over time. - The Russian Empire eventually begins to look to the West for technology and Enlightenment ideas. Ivan III 1462-1505 AKA Ivan the Great - Was Prince of Muscovy (Moscow) - Refused to pay tribute to the Mongols and declared Russia officially free of any more Mongol rule - To legitimize his power, he unofficially called himself a Tsar - derived from Caesar. Gained additional prestige due to his marriage to Zoe, the last niece of the Byzantine emperor Thomas Palaiologos and gained the legitimacy of the Orthodox Church. - Goes on to unite many Russian states under one ruler - Moscow undergoes changes (ex: Kremlin = “a fortress inside a city” a medieval walled fortress where the Muscovite grand princes, later, tsars resided.) - Becomes a major trading center for fur and timber. Because of this, Kiev decreases in importance. - Social hierarchy was static:  Lin 23 - Nobles (Boyars) landowners - Merchants - Peasants - peasants eventually made their way to serfdom - Serfs = peasants who get a plot of land and protection from the noble in return they are bound to land and have little personal freedom. - Nobles had tension with Ivan and in order to keep them under control, he moved them to Moscow so he could keep an eye on them. Ivan IV 1547-1584 - Ivan The Terrible! (Grandson of Ivan III) - Established absolute rule in Russia - Expansion!!! (Mostly to the east) - Was successful in campaigns due to gunpowder - also used land mines - Commissioned the construction of St. Basil’s Cathedral to set a reminder that the church and tsar are united. - Expands to Siberia to control fur trade and allows major Russian landowners, the Stroganov, to hire bands of peasant warriors called Cossacks to fight for them and gain control of imperial territories. They successfully controlled the Volga River, which flows to the Caspian Sea to trade with Persia and Ottomans. By 1639 - Expansion reached the Pacific and shared some features of western expansion - religious conversion, disease. = One of Ivan’s greatest achievements was increasing trade opportunities for Russia. - In order to control the boyars at home, Oprichnina - a paramilitary (1560s) - was created - operated under a reign of terror = those deemed a threat were executed. - Going crazy! - Killed his son in a fit of rage and then sank into paranoia. - Death of son - In 1581, he beat his pregnant daughter in law for wearing immodest clothing, likely causing her to miscarry. Ivan’s son got into a fight with him over this and Ivan killed him with a pointed staff. Killed the only competent heir to the throne. - Died in 1584 without an heir. - Killed inhabitants of entire cities where the name, “Ivan the Terrible” circulated. (Terrible in this case does not mean bad, it means formidable.) - Ivan the Terrible’s reign led to the Time of Troubles Time of Troubles 1603-1613 - 1603-1613 - no strong autocrat or family controlled Russia = Russia entered the Time of Troubles when feudal lords fought for control, one contender for the throne killed one after the other. - Time of Troubles ended when feudal lords elected Michael Romanov to be the tsar (Romanov Dynasty - till 1917) - The Romanov Dynasty added stability to the empire and expanded Russian borders, but they held autocratic control and ruled ruthlessly. - Only the tsar could make war, tax, judge, and coin money. Made the nobles serve as state officials. Became a despotic state that had no political assemblies for nobles or other groups, other than mere consultative bodies like the imperial senate. - Away from Moscow, local aristocrats enjoyed nearly unlimited authority in exchange for loyalty and tribute to the tsar.  Lin 24 - Peasant families gathered into communes, isolated rural worlds where people helped one another deal with the harsh climate, severe landlords, and occasional poor harvests. - Three major groups have conflicts (Tsar - royal family, Boyars - want to gain and hold power, Church - wants to conserve traditional values and beliefs) Peter the Great (Peter I) 1682-1725 - Gained throne after defeating half-sister Sophia and her supporters - forced her into a convent and then consolidated power. - Moved against Ortho Church - church was always a unifying force. Tsars claimed divine rights. - Abolished the Patriarch (head of Church) and incorporated the church into his own government. - Established a new position known as the Holy Synod - composed of clergymen who only answer to the tsar. Most church reforms are not welcomed by peasants. - Visited Western Europe in 1697 to check out all the new tech and innovations. Dressed as a simple commoner under a false name, but had to keep a low profile which was difficult because he was 6 '9'’. - Russian Navy! - Creates port city of St. Petersburg (becomes capital) - Reforms!! - Used new military power to take lands on the Baltic Sea from Sweden. Created the port city of St. Petersburg, which eventually became the capital. - Reformed manners and customs - wanted Russians to assimilate to more of a western way of life. - Advocated for education - math/geometry/medicine/navy. Reforms didn’t reach lower classes, which remained more traditional. - Women’s rights advanced - could choose marital partners, higher classes attended schools, could inherit property, could leave the home. - New industries such as shipbuilding were created based on a western model. However, this failed to generate enough revenue, so he raised taxes. RESULT: Peasants more oppressed than ever by 1718. - Men were promoted according to merit, rather than class, although more was always done for the upper class. - St. Petersburg became home to western engineers, scientists put in place to westernize Russia. Catherine the Great (Catherine II) 1762-1796 - Well educated (German born Protestant) - Came to Russia to marry her cousin, Peter III (after his death she took throne = Tsarina) - Joins Ortho Church, which demonstrated legitimacy through union with church - Uses ideas of Enlightenment - Proposes reforms such as codifying Russian law (Instruction of Catherine the Great) and ending the use of torture. Boyars resisted reforms. - Faced uprisings and conflicts by peasants and needed protection from boyars so she made them tax exempt in 1785.  Lin 25 - Cossack Rebellion AKA Pugachev’s Rebellion - Began due to dissatisfaction with Catherine’s policies and the oppression of the cossacks/a rebellion by the peasant class that was shut down. Spread through Russia, but was crushed by the imperial army. Pugachev was later executed. Serfs were further controlled by owners. - Oversaw expansion through the Russo-Turkish Wars (series of 12 wars between 1768-1774 and 1787-1792). Gained the Black Sea territory for trade routes and access to the Mediterranean. - Through expansive and costly campaigns, protected agricultural settlements and moved into Ottoman territory - Enlightened policies - education and western culture implemented i.e. schools for girls, smallpox vaccine, westernization of Russia like Peter - However, she repressed serfdom and limited the growth of the merchant class. - Legacy - 1. Was a complex figure known for both her progressive reforms and ruthless tactics. 2. She expanded the Russian empire, modernized its legal system and education and championed Enlightenment ideals, but also engaged in wars and used violence to maintain power. 3. Serves as a reminder that even powerful leaders are human beings with strengths and weaknesses.