AMSCO AP World History PDF: Transoceanic Interconnections (1450-1750)

UNIT 4: Transoceanic Interconnections from c. 1450 to c. 1750 Understand the Context The voyage by Christopher Columbus in 1492 that connected the Eastern and Western hemispheres led to the first global trade networks. They provided the framework for hi...

UNIT 4: Transoceanic Interconnections from c. 1450 to c. 1750 Understand the Context The voyage by Christopher Columbus in 1492 that connected the Eastern and Western hemispheres led to the first global trade networks. They provided the framework for historical events for the following centuries. Establishment of Maritime Empires Between 1 50 and 1 50, European states, starting with the Portuguese and Spanish, sought a transoceanic route to Asia. Europeans established trading post empires in the Indian Ocean that inadvertently brought them into contact with the Americas. Global Exchanges Trans-Atlantic trade linked the Americas, Europe, and Africa for the first time. European colonists who wanted sugar and other crops to sell in the global market developed plantations in the Americas. Their desire for laborers fueled the trade in enslaved Africans. Trans-Pacific trade flourished as well. Silver mined in Latin America was the major commodity. Over time, the transfer of crops, animals, and disease between the Eastern and Western hemispheres, known as the Columbian Exchange, altered life everywhere. The introduction of potatoes, corn, and tomatoes to Europe led to population growth. The introduction of deadly pathogens, such as small pox and measles, devastated the populations of the Americas. Change and Continuity Within the context of increasing European influence, regional commerce and established states in Afro-Eurasia continued to flourish. The Mughal, Ottoman, and Qing Empires expanded, creating ethnically diverse states. Across the globe, peasant and artisan labor intensified as the demand for goods and food increased. These developments set the stage for the revolutions that defined the period after 1 50. Russian tsar Peter the Hernán Cortés conquers Spain completes The Dutch East India Great visits Western the smallpox-weakened its conquest of the Company, a joint-stock Europe to study its Aztec Empire. Inca Empire. company, is established. technology. 1521 1572 1602 1697 1450 1550 1650 1750 1492 1526 1600 Christopher Columbus The Mughal Empire is Tokugawa Shogunate, 1624 travels from Europe established in present-day Japan's last feudal Ana Nzinga becomes to the Americas. India; lasts until 1761. military government, ruler of Ndongo in begins. south-central Africa. UNIT 4: TRANSOCEANIC INTERCONNECTIONS FROM C. 1450 TO C. 1750 189 Topics and Learning Objectives Topic 4.1: Technological Innovations pages 191–198 A: Explain how cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of technology and facilitated changes in patterns of trade and travel from 1 50 to 1 50. Topic 4.2: Exploration: Causes and Events pages 199–208 B: Describe the role of states in the expansion of maritime exploration from 1 50 to 1 50. C: Explain the economic causes and effects of maritime exploration by the various European states. Topic 4.3: Colombian Exchange pages 209–217 D: Explain the causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effects on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Topic 4.4: Maritime Empires are Established pages 218–231 E: Explain the process of state building and expansion among various empires and states in the period from 1 50 to 1 50. F: Explain the continuities and changes in economic systems and labor systems from 1 50 to 1 50. G: Explain changes and continuities in systems of slavery in the period from 1 50 to 1 50. Topic 4.5: Maritime Empires are Maintained and Developed pages 232–242 H: Explain how rulers employed economic strategies to consolidate and maintain power throughout the period from 1 50 to 1 50. I: Explain the continuities and changes in networks of exchange from 1 50 to 1 50. J: Explain how political, economic, and cultural factors affected society from 1 50 to 1 50. K: Explain the similarities and differences in how various belief systems affected societies from 1 50 to 1 50. Topic 4.6: Internal and External Challenges to State Power pages 243–250 L: Explain the effects of the development of state power from 1 50 to 1 50. Topic 4.7: Changing Social Hierarchies pages 251–260 M: Explain how social categories, roles and practices have been maintained or have changed over time. Topic 4.8: Continuity and Change from 1450 to 1750 pages 261–264 N: Explain how economic developments from 1 50 to 1 50 affected social structures over time. 190 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  4.1 Technological Innovations The sailors, moreover, as they sail over the sea, when in cloudy weather they can no longer profit by the light of the sun, or when the world is wrapped up in the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to what point of the compass their ship’s course is directed, they touch the magnet with a needle, which (the needle) is whirled round in a circle until, when its motion ceases, its point looks direct to the north. —Alexander Neckham (1157-1217) Essential Question: How did cross-cultural interactions spread technology and facilitate changes in trade and travel from 1450 to 1750? A lthough land-based empires were important during this period, various inventions allowed Europeans to venture long distances on the ocean. The magnetic compass, originally created in China for fortune telling, helped steer a ship in the right direction, as described by Alexander Neckham. The astrolabe, improved by Muslim navigators in the 12th century, let sailors find out how far north or south they were from the equator. The caravel, a small, three-masted sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century, allowed sailors to survive storms at sea better than earlier-designed ships. Cartography, or mapmaking, and knowledge of current and wind patterns also improved navigation. Demographic pressures pushed Europeans into exploration and trade. As the population grew, not all workers in Europe could find work or even food. Not all sons of the wealthy could own land because primogeniture laws gave all of each estate to the eldest son. In the early 1 th century, religious minorities searched for a place to settle where people were tolerant of their dissent. All of these groups, as well as those just longing for adventure and glory, were eager to settle in new areas. Those who left their homelands in search of work, food, land, tolerance, and adventure were part of a global shift in demographics. Developments of Transoceanic Travel and Trade Europe was never totally isolated from East and South Asia. The Indian Ocean trade routes had long brought silk, spices, and tea to the Mediterranean by way of the Red Sea. Islamic traders had long known of land routes from China to the cities of Baghdad and Constantinople and from there to Rome. Then, TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 191 in the 16th century, more and more Europeans became active in the Indian Ocean, with hopes of finding wealth and new converts as their twin motives. However, Europeans faced competition from Middle Eastern traders based in kingdoms such as Oman. For example, the Portuguese set up forts in Oman but were repeatedly challenged by attempts to remove them. The Omani- European rivalry was one reason for Christopher Columbus’s search for a new route to India. The voyages by Columbus connected people across the Atlantic Ocean. European traders became go-betweens linking Afro-Eurasia and the Americas. From the Americas, they purchased sugar, tobacco, and rum. From Africa, they purchased enslaved people. From Asia, they purchased silk, spices, and rhubarb. This extensive trade transformed Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, France, and Holland into maritime empires, ones based on sea travel. Much of this trade was carried out by men. However, in Southeast Asia, Europeans conducted most of their business with women, who traditionally handled markets and money-changing services in those cultures. Classical, Islamic, and Asian Technology Western European countries such as Portugal, Spain, and England were developing their naval technology. They were aware of traditions of sailing that went back to the classical Greeks, such as using the stars to navigate. They combined this knowledge with new ideas developed by Islamic and Asian sailors and scholars, which they learned about because of the cross- cultural interactions resulting from trade networks. Al-Andalus, in what is now Spain, was a place where Islamic ideas diffused into Europe. The leading European figure in this development was Portuguese ruler Prince Henry the Navigator. While he never sailed far enough out to sea to lose sight of land, he strongly supported exploration. He financed expeditions along Africa’s Atlantic Coast and around the Cape of Good Hope. With his backing, Portugal explored African coastal communities and kingdoms before other European powers. Advances in Ideas As scholars gathered knowledge, they improved the safety of sailing on the ocean. For example, Newton’s discovery of gravitation increased knowledge of the tides. As a result, sailors could reliably predict when the depth of water near a shore would be decreasing, thereby exposing dangerous rocks. As people kept increasingly accurate records on the direction and intensity of winds, sailors could sail with greater confidence. Improvements in cartography also improved navigation. An astronomical chart is any map of the stars and galaxies. Mariners relied on these maps to guide ships’ direction, especially before the introduction of the compass, using the skies to help them determine their location. Ancient astronomers in Babylonia and Mesopotamia had created star charts as early as the 2nd 192 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION millennium B.C.E. Charts by Chinese astronomers date back to the 5th century B.C.E. Charts were also used widely by classical Greek astronomers. Using telescopes to help create astronomical charts began in 160 , and the practice was widely used to map the stars by the end of the 1 th century. Astronomers typically divided the charts into grids to help locate specific constellations and astronomical objects. Advances in Equipment Several developments in the equipment used on ships made sailing safer and faster than ever. Ships moved adroitly, aided by a new type of rudder, another idea imported from China. The astrolabe, improved by Muslim navigators in the 12th century, allowed sailors to determine how far north or south they were from the equator. The compass is the primary direction-finding device used in navigation. It works either with magnets or a gyroscope, which is a wheel or disk mounted to spin rapidly around an axis in various directions. Other compasses determine the location of the sun or a specific star. The magnetic compass, originally invented in China, allowed sailors to steer a ship in the right direction. It is the oldest and most familiar. It was discovered by mariners in both China and Europe in the 12th century. This type of compass works as Earth itself acts as an enormous bar magnet. Earth’s magnetic field is almost parallel to the north- south axis of the globe, which means that freely moving magnets, such as those in a compass, take on the same orientation. The lateen sail, or a ship sail in the shape of a triangle, was a pivotal piece of technology. Used by Arab sailors and in the Indian Ocean, it significantly affected medieval navigation and trade. The ancient square sails that preceded the lateen allowed sailing only in a single direction and had to be used with the wind. The lateen, however, could catch the wind on either side of the ship, allowing it to travel in different directions. When used with the square sail, the lateen allowed sailors to travel successfully into large bodies of water, including oceans, for the first time, thus expanding trade routes. Source: Getty Images Lateen sails are still used on modern sailboats. TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 193  New types of ships also improved trade. By adjusting the ratio of length to width of a ship, adding or reducing the number of masts, and using different types of sails, builders could adapt ships to improve their efficiency. (Connect: Compare the technological advances of the Mongols and Chinese of the 12th and 1 th centuries with those in the chart below. See Topic 2.1. Three Types of Ships Ship Typical Sails and Purpose Primary Centuries of Length Masts Users Peak Use Carrack 150 feet Square and Trade Portugal 14th to 17th lateen on 3-4 masts Caravel 75 feet Lateen sails Long Portuguese 15th to 17th on 2 or 3 voyages at and Spanish masts great speed Fluyt 80 feet Square on 2 Trade Dutch 16th to 17th or 3 masts Long-Term Results The long-term result of combining navigational techniques invented in Europe with those from other areas of the world was a rapid expansion of exploration and global trade. About the only part of the Afro- Eurasia world not affected by the rapid increase in global trade was Polynesia, since it was far removed from trading routes. The introduction of gunpowder, another Chinese invention, aided Europeans in their conquests abroad. Soon enough, however, sea pirates also used the new technology, particularly the Dutch pirates known as Sea Beggars. In North Africa and in the trading cities along Africa’s east coast, Islam spread rapidly as a result of the growth of the Abbasid Empire, centered in Baghdad, and the activities of Muslim merchants. Interactions among various cultures inside and outside of Africa brought extensive trade and new technology to the continent. Navigational techniques continued to spread throughout the 1 th century. Russia’s Tsar Peter the Great visited Western Europe in 16 to observe military and naval technology. His interest in European technology led him to hire technicians from Germany and elsewhere to help build Russia’s military and naval power. KEY TERMS BY THEME ECONOMICS: Europe TECHNOLOGY: Navigation GOVERNMENT: Europe primogeniture laws cartography maritime empires Omani-European rivalry astronomical chart 194 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the image below. Source: Mus e national de la Marine, Paris, France. Wikimedia Commons. This model of a caravel shows some of the innovations that made ocean travel easier. 1. The specific technological innovation depicted here that improved deep water navigation was the A compass B upper deck oars C astrolabe D lateen sails TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 195  2. The technological innovation depicted in the above image was first used in A the Black Sea B the East African coastal city of ilwa C Constantinople D the Indian Ocean 3. The European monarch who made the greatest use of this new technology was A Prince Henry B Henry III C Mehmed the Great D Pope Urban II SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passages below to answer all parts of the question that follows. “After the year 1500 there was no pepper to be had at Calicut that was not dyed red with blood.” oltaire, 1 56 “Gunpowder weapons were not new. The Chinese invented gunpowder and they made the first true guns in the tenth century, primarily for defensive purposes. The Mongols improved these Chinese weapons into a more effective offensive force, to blow open city gates. By 12 1, these weapons had reached Europe. Early modern Europeans, Turks, Mughals, and Chinese owed their strength in part to improvements in gunpowder weaponry. Combined with better military organization and seagoing capability, advanced weaponry inevitably affected political and social systems. As they spread throughout Eurasia and North Africa, gunpowder weapons changed warfare. Europeans learned how to make particularly deadly weapons, improving the technology in part because they had easier access to metals.” Craig A. Lockard, Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History,Volume II: Since 1450 ( 2010 196 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  A Identify ONE way in which the passage from Lockard reflects technological developments that influenced social structures in the period 1 50 1 50. B Explain ONE way the words of oltaire reflect technological developments that influenced political structures in the period 1 50 1 50. C Explain ONE historical situation in the period 1 50 1 50, other than the ones illustrated in the passages, in which states in Asia or Africa had an impact on the development of European states. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. A Identify ONE economic motivation for understanding wind patterns. B Identify ONE political motivation for developing navigational technology. C Explain ONE way in which state interactions in the period 1 50 1 50 had an impact on different cultures. Source: Pierre5018 Wikimedia Commons A French astrolabe made in 160 TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 197  THINK AS A HISTORIAN: IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE A HISTORICAL CONTEXT Suppose the topic you have just read was the only topic you have read so far. What would you make of it Without a context, it would be hard to appreciate fully. Chances are, though, that you have read some topics before this one, so you do have a context in which to situate this information. To understand context, first simply identify it in this case, an era of the expansion of trade and empires. Then, to understand the context as fully as possible, describe it. In this case, you might describe the context as one of ambitious rulers eager to stake out territory for both trade and political control, centralizing political states, religious differences so strong that they led to warfare, and an interest in humanism and the natural world. Finally, among all the descriptors you thought of, narrow the context down to the most relevant. For example, if you are trying to contextualize humanism, you would focus on the context of philosophy and ideas rather than that of expanding trade. In three or four sentences, identify and describe a historical context for each of the following. 1. The magnetic compass 2. The introduction of gunpowder 3. The invention of the printing press 4. nowledge of monsoon winds REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs, explain how cross-cultural interactions spread technology and facilitated changes in trade and travel from 1 50 to 1 50. 198 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  4.2 Exploration: Causes and Events You can never cross the ocean unless you have the courage to lose sight of the shore —Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) Essential Question: What were the causes and effects of the state- sponsored expansion of maritime exploration? Thanks in part to improved navigation techniques, Italian cities with ports on the Mediterranean had a monopoly on European trade with Asia. By controlling access to the trade routes, the Italians controlled prices of Asian imports to Europe, driving Spain and Portugal, and later France, England, and the Netherlands, into the search for new routes to Asia. Explorers hoped to find riches overseas, especially gold and silver. In addition to these economic and political reasons, explorers were interested in converting others to Christianity. Also, technological breakthroughs in sailing and navigation made bold new voyages possible. Christopher Columbus, quoted above and credited with “discovering the New World,” was fortunate in 1 2 to gain the support of the Spanish monarchs, Queen Isabella and ing Ferdinand, for his voyages across the Atlantic. His journeys helped increase the interest in discovery, and the English, French, and Dutch supported later exploration. The Role of States in Maritime Exploration European states were seeking ways to expand their authority and control of resources in the era of empire-building. Conquests brought new wealth to states through the collection of taxes and through new trading opportunities. In time it also brought great material wealth, especially in silver, to European states. Rivalries among European states stoked efforts to expand before another power might claim a territory. Religion was also a motivating force for exploration and expansion. Many Europeans believed that it was their Christian duty to seek out people in other lands to convert them. For all these reasons, states were centrally involved in maritime exploration. oyages such as those Columbus undertook were expensive, and without the financial support of a state, they would most likely have been too expensive EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 199 for explorers and even most merchants to be able to afford. Since religion was tightly woven into the government of most European states, preserving and spreading a state’s religion became another reason for state involvement. Also, in the 1 th century, Europeans generally measured the wealth of a country in how much gold and silver it had accumulated. For this reason, countries set policies designed to sell as many goods as they could to other countries in order to maximize the amount of gold and silver coming into the country and to buy as few as possible from other countries to minimize the flow of precious metals out of the country. This theory, known as mercantilism, required heavy government involvement. Expansion of European Maritime Exploration In no nation were the interests of the state and the interest of explorers as closely tied as they were in Portugal, which led the way in European exploration as it had in maritime innovations. See Topic 2.. Portuguese in Africa and India The small kingdom of Portugal, bounded on the east by the Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, could expand only overseas. Three people led its exploration: Prince Henry the Navigator 1 1 60 became the first European monarch to sponsor seafaring expeditions, to search for an all-water route to the east as well as for African gold. Under him, Portugal began importing enslaved Africans by sea, replacing the overland slave trade. Bartholomew Diaz sailed around the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, in 1 88, into waters his crew did not know. Diaz feared a mutiny if he continued pushing eastward, so he returned home. Vasco Da Gama sailed farther east than Diaz, landing in India in 1 8. There he claimed territory as part of Portugal’s empire. The Portuguese ports in India were a key step in expanding Portugal’s trade in the Indian Ocean and with points farther east. Portuguese in Southeast and East Asia Early in the 16th century, the ruthless Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque won a short but bloody battle with Arab traders and set up a factory at Malacca in present-day Indonesia. He had previously served as governor of Portuguese India 150 1515 , sending strings of Indians’ ears home to Portugal as evidence of his conquests. China’s exploration of the outside world came to an end after heng He’s final voyage in the 1 0s. See Topic 2.. However, less than a century later, in 151 , the outside world arrived on China’s doorstep in the form of Portuguese traders. At that time, Portugal’s superior ships and weapons were unmatched among the Europeans. As a result of this advantage, the Portuguese had already won control of both the African and Indian coasts. They had won a decisive victory over a Turkish-Egyptian- enetian fleet at Diu, India, in 150. 200 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  Initial Portuguese visits had little impact on Chinese society. But the traders were followed by Roman Catholic missionaries, mainly Franciscans and Dominicans, who worked to gain converts among the Chinese people. The Jesuits soon followed and tried to win over the Chinese court elite. Scientific and technical knowledge were the keys to success at the court. Jesuit missionaries in Macau, such as Matteo Ricci an Italian, arrived 1582 and Adam Schall von Bell a German, arrived 161 , impressed the Chinese with their learning. However, they failed to win many converts among the hostile scholar-gentry, who considered them barbaric. Trading Post Empire To ensure control of trade, the Portuguese had constructed a series of forts stretching from Hormuz on the Persian Gulf built in 150 to Goa in western India built in 1510 to Malacca on the Malay Peninsula built in 1511. The aims of the fort construction were to establish a monopoly complete control over a market over the spice trade in the area and to license all vessels trading between Malacca and Hormuz. The forts gave Portugal a global trading post empire, one based on small outposts, rather than control of large territories. The Portuguese also restricted Indian Ocean trade to those who were willing to buy permits. Portuguese Vulnerability The Portuguese succeeded in global trade for several decades, but Portugal was a small nation, lacking the workers and the ships necessary for the enforcement of a large trade empire. Many Portuguese merchants ignored their government and traded independently. Corruption among government officials also hampered the trading empire. By the 1 th century, Dutch and English rivals were challenging the Portuguese in East Asia, including islands that are today part of Malaysia and Indonesia. The Dutch captured Malacca and built a fort at Batavia in Java in 1620. From Batavia, the Dutch attempted to monopolize the spice trade. As a result, the English focused on India, pushing the Portuguese out of South Asia. In the early 16th century, the Portuguese also travelled to Japan to trade, followed by Christian missionaries in 15. They formed large Catholic settlements until the 1600s, when Japanese rulers outlawed Catholicism and expelled the missionaries. Spanish in the Philippines Portuguese explorers such as asco da Gama were the first Western Europeans to reach the Indian Ocean by sea by going around the southern tip of Africa. Spanish ships, however, became the first to circumnavigate the globe when the government sponsored the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan. He died on the voyage in the Philippine Islands in 1522, but one of the ships in his fleet made it around the world, proving that the earth could be circumnavigated. Spain annexed the Philippines in 1521 when Magellan’s fleet arrived there. The Spanish returned in 1565 and started a long campaign to conquer the Filipinos, who put up fierce resistance. Manila became a Spanish commercial center in the area, attracting Chinese merchants and others. Because of the Portuguese and Spanish occupations, many Filipinos became Christians. EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 201 The Lure of Riches Columbus and other European explorers sought a new route to Asia and hoped to find gold, silver, and other valuable resources. The Spanish found so little of value in their first two decades of contact that they considered stopping further exploration. The English, after sponsoring voyages in the 1 0s, made little attempt to explore or settle for almost a century. However, European interest in the Americas was rekindled when the Spanish came into contact with the two major empires in the region, the Aztecs in Mesoamerica and the Incas in South America. These empires had the gold and silver that made exploration, conquest, and settlement profitable. In addition, Europeans soon realized that, by using enslaved Native Americans and later enslaved Africans, they could grow wealthy by raising sugar, tobacco, and other valuable crops. ra e cross the acific China was a particularly enthusiastic consumer of this silver from the Western Hemisphere. Silver, for example, made its way from what is now Mexico across the Pacific Ocean to East Asia in heavily armed Spanish ships known as galleons that made stops in the Philippines. At the trading post in Manila, Europeans exchanged silver for luxury goods such as silk and spices, and even for gold bullion. The impressive Manila galleons allowed the silver trade to flourish. Indeed, the Chinese government soon began using silver as its main form of currency. By the early 1 th century, silver had become a dominant force in the global economic system. Spain’s Gold and Silver Imports from the Americas, 1503–1660 25 20 Millions of Pesos 15 10 5 0 1503–1520 1541–1560 1581–1600 1621–1640 1521–1540 1561–1580 1601–1620 1641–1660 Period of Time Source: Earl J. Hamilton “Imports of American Gold and Silver into Spain, 1503–1660.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 1929. 202 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  Spain’s rivals in Europe also explored and claimed regions in the Americas. French, English, and Dutch explorers all looked for a northwest passage—a route through or around North America that would lead to East Asia and the precious trade in spices and luxury goods. French Exploration In the 1500s and 1600s, the French government sponsored expeditions in search of a northwest passage. In 15 5, for example, French explorer Jacques Cartier sailed from the Atlantic Ocean into the St. Lawrence River at today’s northern U.S. border. He did not find a new route to Asia, but he did claim part of what is now Canada for France. Eventually, explorers such as Cartier and Samuel de Champlain explored 160 1616 realized there were valuable goods and rich resources available in the Americas, so there was no need to go beyond to Asia. Like the Spanish, the French hoped to find gold. Instead, they found a land rich in furs and other natural resources. In 1608, they established a town and trading post that they named Quebec. French traders and priests spread across the continent. The traders searched for furs the priests wanted to convert Native Americans to Christianity. The missionaries sometimes set up schools among the indigenous peoples. In the 1680s, a French trader known as La Salle explored the Great Lakes and followed the Mississippi River south to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico. He claimed this vast region for France. Unlike the Spanish or the English who were colonizing the East Coast of what is now the United States the French rarely settled permanently. Instead of demanding land, they traded for the furs trapped by Native Americans. For this reason, the French had better relations with natives than did the Spanish or English colonists and their settlements also grew more slowly. For example, by 1 5 , the European population of New France, the French colony in North America, was only 0,000. The English colonies included one million Europeans. English Exploration In 1 , the English king sent an explorer named John Cabot to America to look for a northwest passage. Cabot claimed lands from Newfoundland south to the Chesapeake Bay. The English, however, did not have enough sea power to defend themselves against Spanish naval forces although English pirates called “sea dogs” sometimes attacked Spanish ships. Then in 1588, the English surprisingly defeated and destroyed all but one third of the Spanish Armada. With that victory, England declared itself a major naval power and began competing for lands and resources in the Americas. At about the same time the French were founding Quebec, the English were establishing a colony in a land called irginia. In 160 , about one hundred English colonists traveled approximately 60 miles inland from the coast, where they built a settlement, Jamestown, on the James River. Both the settlement and the river were named for the ruling English monarch, James I. Jamestown was England’s first successful colony in the Americas, and one of the earliest colonies in what would become the United States. The first colonies in the present-day United States were Spanish settlements in Florida and New Mexico. EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 203  Comparing Transoceanic Voyages, c. 1300–c. 1800 Sponsoring Explorer Key Voyages Purpose Impact Empire China Zheng He India To open up trade China decided Middle East networks with not to continue India, Arabia, exploring Africa and Africa and to spread Chinese culture England John Cabot North To find a sea Claimed land in America route to the East Canada for Britain going west from and established Europe a shorter, more northerly route across the Atlantic than Columbus’s route. Portugal Vasco da West coast To open a sea Portugal expanded Gama of Africa route from trade and cultural India Europe to India exchange between and China India and Europe Spain Christopher Caribbean To find a sea Spain led the Columbus islands route to India European Central and China exploration and America going west from colonization of the Europe Americas Spain Ferdinand South To demonstrate Spain established Magellan America that Europeans links between the Philippines could reach Asia Americas and Asia by sailing west across the Pacific Ocean Dutch Exploration In 160 , the Dutch sent Henry Hudson to explore the East Coast of North America. Among other feats, he sailed up what became known as the Hudson River to see if it led to Asia. He was disappointed in finding no northwest passage. He and other explorers would continue to search for such a route. Though it would travel through a chilly region, it offered the possibility of being only half the distance of a route that went around South America. Though Hudson did not find a northwest passage, his explorations proved valuable to the Dutch. Based on his voyage, the Dutch claimed the Hudson River alley and the island of Manhattan. On the tip of this island, they settled a community called New Amsterdam, which today is known as New York City. Like many port towns, New Amsterdam prospered because it was located where a major river flowed into the ocean. 204 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  New Amsterdam became an important node in the Dutch transatlantic trade network. Dutch merchants bought furs from trappers who lived and worked in the forest lands as far north as Canada. They purchased crops from lands to the south, particularly tobacco from irginia planters. They sent these goods and others to the Netherlands in exchange for manufactured goods that they could sell throughout colonial North America Connect: Explain how one of the European explorers in Topic.2 compares to Marco Polo. See Topic 2.5. KEY TERMS BY THEME ECONOMICS: Europe GOVERNMENT: GOVERNMENT: Colonies mercantilism Exploration Quebec trading post empire Christopher Columbus New France Manila Bartholomew Diaz Jamestown Vasco Da Gama New Amsterdam GOVERNMENT: Portugal Ferdinand Magellan Prince Henry the Navigator northwest passage TECHNOLOGY: Maritime Jacques Cartier galleons Samuel de Champlain John Cabot Henry Hudson EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 205 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. “When the Portuguese go from Macao, the most southern port city in China, to Japan, they carry much white silk, gold, perfume, and porcelain and they bring from Japan nothing but silver. They have a great ship that goes to Japan every year, and brings back more than 600,000 coins’ worth of Japanese silver. The Portuguese use this Japanese silver to their great advantage in China. The Portuguese bring from China gold, perfume, silk, copper, porcelain, and many other luxury goods.” Ralph Fitch, a British merchant, in an account of his travels to the East Indies, 15 1. Which conclusion about the Portuguese is best supported by the passage above A They manufactured luxury goods that they could sell in China. B They made great profits transporting goods between Asian countries. C They primarily wanted to accumulate silver. D They preferred to trade with China rather than Japan. 2. Which statement best describes the point of view of the source, Ralph Fitch A He was ridiculing the Portuguese for working so hard for so little profit. B He was embarrassed that the Portuguese were taking advantage of the Chinese and Japanese. C He was hoping to make profits just as the Portuguese were doing. D He was criticizing the Portuguese for being so focused on acquiring wealth. 3. Which statement best explains why Portugal established a trading post empire A It had a large navy and was able to conquer nearby lands. B It was a landlocked country and could not expand except by sea. C It had a small population and navy so controlling large territories was not possible. D It had fallen behind other European powers in development of navigational technology. 206 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the chart below to answer all parts of the questions that follow. European Voyages in Search of a Water Route to Asia Empire Explorer and Year Region Impact Spain Christopher Columbus, Caribbean Sea Spain took the lead in 1492 colonizing America England John Cabot, Canada England claimed 1497 Canada Portugal Pedro Cabral, Brazil Portugal strengthened 1500 its claim on Brazil France Jacques Cartier, St. Lawrence River France claimed Canada 1535 Holland Henry Hudson, New York Holland founded New 1609 Amsterdam A Identify ONE technological improvement in the period 1 50 1 50 that originated outside of Europe yet helped Europeans in their voyages of discovery. B Explain how ONE explorer listed in the chart affected the empire that sponsored him beyond the impact identified in the last column. C Explain how ONE explorer listed in the chart affected the indigenous population of the Americas. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. A Identify ONE social similarity between the Spanish and French settlements in the Americas in the period 1 50 1 50. B Explain ONE political or economic difference between the English and French settlements in the Americas in the period 1 50 1 50. C Explain ONE political or economic difference between the Dutch and French settlements in the Americas in the period 1 50 1 50. EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 207  THINK AS A HISTORIAN: MAKE CONNECTIONS BY RELATING HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS Historians of exploration might well focus a specialized study on the search for a northwest passage on the details of each effort to find one and the outcome of the exploration. In a similar way, economic historians might well focus a specialized study on the expansion of trade networks as a global economy began to develop. However, to appreciate the interconnections of historical developments, historians would relate the exploratory and the economic developments, looking for ways in which developments in one field of study influenced developments in the other field. For example, the explorers failed in their mission to find a northwest passage, but they found instead that there were goods to trade on the land they traveled through, and they explored new territories that proved rich with trading possibilities. These findings, in turn, led to the desire for more exploration that would lead to new participants in the global trade network. In a sentence or two, relate each of the following economic develop- ments to another historical development in a different field of study, such as military history or social history. 1. Mercantilism 2. Trading post empire 3. Increased tax revenue REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs, explain the causes and effects of the state sponsored expansion of maritime exploration. 208 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  4.3 Columbian Exchange We are crushed to the ground; we lie in ruins. here is nothing but grief and su ering in exico and latelolco, where once we saw beauty and alor —from “Flowers and Songs of Sorrow,” anonymous Aztec poet, (c. 1521–1540) Essential Question: What were the causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effects on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres? A s the excerpt from the poem above suggests, initial contact and the subsequent conquest and colonization of the Americas proved disastrous for the native peoples. Overpowered by superior weapons and decimated by disease, many native populations declined, dissipated, or were forced to submit to new rulers and a new religion. Although European conquest seriously damaged entire native societies and their ways of life, eventually new ways of life developed out of the interaction of three broad traditions of culture: indigenous American, European, and African. In the process, the Eastern and Western Hemispheres became linked in a new way, sharing disease, foods, and animals. For the role Christopher Columbus played in establishing the link, these interactions became known as the Columbian Exchange. The Columbian Exchange had far-reaching effects beyond dramatic changes in population and biodiversity. It also contributed to a changing global economy, sometimes with unintended consequences. For example, Spain successfully mined silver in the Americas. However, this silver sparked inflation in Spain, which contributed to the downfall of the Spanish Empire. Diseases and Population Catastrophe Until the arrival of Columbus, the peoples of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres had been almost completely isolated from each other. For that reason, the indigenous people of the Americas had no exposure and therefore no immunity to the germs and diseases brought by Europeans. Although European horses, gunpowder, and metal weapons helped conquer indigenous Americans, disease was responsible for the majority of deaths. Spanish soldiers, called conquistadores, such as Francisco Pizarro and COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE 209 Hern n Cort s, brought smallpox with them. Smallpox pathogens are spread through the respiratory system. When Europeans, who were largely immune after millennia of exposure in Afro-Eurasia, had face-to-face contact with indigenous populations, they infected these populations with the deadly disease. As colonists began to settle in the Americas, so did insects, rats, and other disease-carrying animals. Measles, influenza, and malaria, in addition to smallpox, also killed many native peoples of the Americas. The indigenous population of the Americas fell by more than 50 percent through disease alone in less than a century. Some American lands lost up to 0 percent of their original populations. It was one of the greatest population disasters in human history. Source: Wikimedia Commons Deadly diseases such as smallpox that came from Europe spread rapidly in the Americas. Animals and Foods Germ and disease transmissions were only one part of the Columbian Exchange. Another major component of the exchange was the sharing of new crops and livestock in both directions. Before the exchange began around 1500, Mesoamerican peoples consumed very little meat. Although contemporary Mexican food sold in the United States is reliant on pork, beef, and cheese, the indigenous people of Mexico knew nothing of pigs or cows until Europeans introduced them. These animals, along with Mediterranean foods such as wheat and grapes, were introduced to the Western Hemisphere and eventually became staples of the American diet. Another domesticated animal the Europeans brought to the Americas, the horse, transformed the culture of the American Indians living in the Plains region. With the arrival of the horse, Indians could hunt buffalo on horseback so efficiently and over a larger region that they had a surplus of food. That 210 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION efficiency gave them more time for other pursuits, such as art and spirituality. However, competition and even armed conflict among tribes increased, with those having the most horses having the most power. At the same time, European explorers took back Mesoamerican maize corn , potatoes, tomatoes, beans, peppers, and cacao to their home countries, where people started to grow them. Potatoes became so popular in Europe that they are often thought of as being native to certain regions, such as Ireland. The introduction of these vegetable crops caused tremendous population growth in Europe in the 16th and 1 th centuries. Cash Crops and Forced Labor People themselves also became part of the exchange. The coerced arrival of enslaved Africans to the Americas brought biological and demographic changes. For example, Africans brought okra and rice with them to the Americas. Tobacco and cacao produced on American plantations with forced labor were sold to consumers in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. Even though slave traders kidnapped millions of Africans from their homelands, populations actually grew in Africa during the 16th and 1 th centuries. That population growth happened because of the nutritious foods that were introduced to the continent. Yams and manioc, for example, were brought to Africa from Brazil. The Lure of Sugar While Spain and Spanish America profited from silver, the Portuguese empire focused its endeavors on agriculture. Brazil, the center of the Portuguese-American empire, with its tropical climate and vast tracts of land, was perfect for sugarcane cultivation. As disease had decimated the indigenous population, however, there were not enough laborers available to do the cultivation. Moreover, many of the people who were forced to labor in the sugar fields escaped to the uncharted Brazilian jungle. In response, the Portuguese began to import enslaved people from Africa, especially from the ongo ingdom and cities on the Swahili coast. Slavery Sugar’s profitability in European markets dramatically increased the number of Africans captured and sold through the transatlantic slave trade. Sugar cultivation in Brazil demanded the constant importation of African labor. African laborers were so numerous in Brazil that their descendants became the majority population of the region. Slave importers sold more than 0 percent of enslaved Africans to the Caribbean and South America. Only about 6 percent went to British North America. Until the mid-1800s, more Africans than Europeans went to the Americas. Enslaved people often died from backbreaking working conditions, poor nutrition, lack of adequate shelter, and tropical heat and the diseases that accompanied such heat. Sugar plantations processed so much sugar that they were referred to as engenhos, which means “engines” in Portuguese. Because of the engenhos’ horrible working conditions, plantation owners lost from 5 to 10 percent of their labor force per year. Slavery is discussed in more detail in the Topic.. COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE 211  Growing Cash Crops The Spanish noticed Portugal’s success with plantation agriculture and returned to the Caribbean to pursue cash crop cultivation, such as sugar and tobacco. Cash crops are grown for sale rather than subsistence. Soon, sugar eclipsed silver as the main moneymaker for the European empires. (Connect: Write a paragraph comparing the economic practices of Spain in the Americas and Portugal in South, Southwest, and Southeast Asia. See Topic.2. African Presence in the Americas African cultures were not completely lost once captives arrived in the Americas. In fact, during the African Diaspora (dispersion of Africans out of Africa , enslaved Africans retained some aspects of their cultures. Languages With a few exceptions, Africans were not able to transplant their languages to the Americas. The captives were forced away from their communities, and they soon found themselves on ships among captives from all across West Africa and, on some slave ships, from across East Africa as well. Since captives were taken from myriad African cultural groups, most did not share a common language. Understandably, they found it difficult, if not impossible, to communicate en route. Because of their linguistic isolation on the ships and in the Americas, most Africans lost their languages after a generation. In spite of this forced isolation from their cultures, West Africans managed to combine European colonizers’ languages English, Spanish, French, or Portuguese, for example with parts of their West African languages and grammatical patterns to create new languages known broadly as creole. Because the Caribbean islands had a larger concentration of enslaved Africans than did North America, creole languages dominate there even today. In the United States, which had a smaller percentage of Africans in comparison to the total population, few examples of creole languages exist. One notable exception is the Gullah or Geechee language of coastal South Carolina and Georgia, in places where enslaved people once composed 5 percent of the population. Music Africans brought their music with them. The syncopated rhythms and percussion they used influenced later styles. These include gospel, blues, jazz, rock and roll, hip-hop, rap, samba, reggae, and country music. One reason many African descendants maintained their musical traditions was because enslaved Africans in America used them as a means of survival. They sang tunes from home to help them endure long workdays as well as to communicate with other Africans, such as when planning an escape. They blended European Christian music with their own religious songs, known today as Negro spirituals essential elements of American folk music history. Enslaved people also invented the banjo, which is very similar to stringed instruments found in West Africa. 212 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  Food In addition to rice and okra, Africans brought their knowledge of how to prepare these foods. The dish known as gumbo, popular in the southern United States, has roots in African cooking. With influences on language, music, food, and much more, African culture has had a profound and lasting impact on life in the Americas. Columbian Exchange: Eastern Hemisphere to Western Hemisphere Type of Exchange Examples ffe t on t e e tern e i ere Crops Sugar Deforestation to make way for sugar, Wheat wheat, barley, okra, rice, and other crops Barley Soil depletion from growing the same Okra crops repeatedly on the same land Rice Oranges * Grapes Lettuce Co ee Animals Horses Overgrazing by cattle, sheep, and Oxen goats Pigs Soil erosion because of overgrazing Cattle Spread of diseases from mosquitoes, rats, and livestock Sheep Goats Mosquitoes Rats Chickens People Europeans Racial diversity Africans Chattel slavery Social structures based on race and ethnicity Diseases Smallpox Spread of disease Measles Millions of deaths among Native Typhus American populations Bubonic plague Influenza Technology and Alphabetic writing Improved communication Ideas irearms New methods for hunting and warfare COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE 213  Columbian Exchange: Western Hemisphere to Eastern Hemisphere Type of Exchange Examples ffe t on t e tern e i ere Crops Potatoes Better nutrition Maize Increase in population Manioc Greater wealth Tobacco Cacao Peanuts Animals Turkeys More diverse diet Llamas New types of textiles Alpacas Guinea pigs Diseases Syphilis Increased health risks People Native Americans Ethnic diversity Technology and Rubber Rubber was first used as an eraser Ideas Quinine Quinine provided a treatment for malaria Environmental and Demographic Impact Contact between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas brought dramatic changes to both. Most changes resulted from the Columbian Exchange. In addition, though, Europeans used agricultural land more intensively than did American Indians. For example, colonists cut down trees to clear areas for planting crops, and they created large fields that they cultivated year after year. As a result, deforestation and soil depletion became problems in the Americas. In addition, Europeans often lived in more densely populated communities than did American Indians. This increased the strain on water resources and created more concentrated areas of pollution. KEY TERMS BY THEME ENVIRONMENT: Disease ENVIRONMENT: Foods ECONOMY: Exchanges smallpox maize Columbian Exchange cacao transatlantic slave trade ENVIRONMENT: Animals okra engenhos horse rice cash crop GOVERNMENT: Empire sugarcane SOCIETY: Population conquistadores CULTURE: African African Diaspora creole gumbo 214 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. “And so at the rumor of the rich deposits of mercury... in the years 15 0 and 15 1, they started the construction of the town of Huancavelica de Oropesa in a pleasant valley at the foot of the range. It contains 00 Spanish residents, as well as many temporary shops of dealers in merchandise and groceries, heads of trading houses, and transients, for the town has a lively commerce.... Up on the range there are ,000 or ,000 Indians working in the mine.... The ore was very rich black flint... and when they have filled their little sacks, the poor fellows, loaded down with ore, climb up those ladders or rigging, some like masts and others like cables, and so trying and distressing that a man empty-handed can hardly get up them.” Antonio azquez de Espinosa, Compendium and Description of the West Indies, 1622 1. The excerpt implies that Espinosa felt A sympathy for those working in the mine B loyalty to the Spanish government C concern for the souls of the indigenous population D interest primarily in making profits from the mine 2. The conditions faced by the Indian laborers described in the passage were most similar to those of A enslaved Africans in North America B bureaucrats serving in Song China C guild members in European cities D merchants involved in the trans-Saharan trade 3. What impact did the products of mines described in the passage, along with metals extracted from other mines, have on Spain and the rest of the world A It enabled the Spanish navy to defeat the English navy in 1588. B It resulted in inflation and a worldwide devaluation of silver. C It caused gold to become the new form of worldwide currency. D It allowed many South Americans to move to Europe. COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE 215 SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passages below to answer all parts of the question that follows. “On the evening of October 11, 1 2.... The two worlds Old and New world , which God had cast asunder, were reunited, and the two worlds, which were so very different, began on that day to become alike. That trend toward biological homogeneity is one of the most important aspects of the history of life on this planet since the retreat of the continental glaciers.” Alfred W. Crosby Jr., The Colombian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 1 2 “Maize was the most important grain of the American Indians in 1 1, and it is one of the most important grain sources in the world right now. It is a standard crop of people not only throughout the Americas, but also southern Europe. It is a staple for the Chinese. It is a staple in Indonesia, throughout large areas of Africa. If suddenly American Indian crops would not grow in all of the world, it would be an ecological tragedy. It would be the slaughter of a very large portion of the human race.” Alfred W. Crosby Jr., Smithsonian.com, October , 2011 A Identify Crosby’s argument about the interactions that occurred between the Americas and Europe Africa in the period 1 50 1 50. B Explain ONE way in which the biological impact referred to in the passage differed from other encounters between the Americas and Europe Africa in the period 1 50 1 50. C Explain ONE historical situation in the period 1 50 1 50, other than the one illustrated in the passage, in which states experienced environmental impact. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. A Identify ONE way in which disease transformed the Americas, Africa, and Europe in the period 1 50 1 50. B Explain ONE way in which commodities affected economies in the Americas, Africa, and Europe in the period 1 50 1 50. C Explain ONE way in which European practices affected the environment in the Americas in the period 1 50 1 50. 216 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  THINK AS A HISTORIAN: IDENTIFY EVIDENCE IN AN ARGUMENT Historians develop arguments to explain and interpret the past. They develop claims statements that express the assertions they make and they support their claims with evidence. Reread the second passage by Alfred W. Crosby Jr. in question 1 on the previous page. Then answer these questions. 1. What claim s does Crosby make in this passage 2. Identify five pieces of evidence Crosby uses to back up his claims. REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs, explain the causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effects on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Source: Getty Images Maize is one of the most important grain sources in the world today. COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE 217  4.4 Maritime Empires Link Regions You grow your peanuts And plenty millet The king sets a hand on everything And says it is not yours anymore! n the deepest of your sleep he king beats his drum And says wake up! ou are not free anymore —Anonymous West African griot (storyteller) song Essential Question: How were the empires of European states established between 1450 to 1750, and what economic and labor systems fueled them? European nations, driven largely by political, religious, and economic rivalries, established new maritime empires and administered trading posts in Asia and Africa and colonies in the Americas. Asian trade frequently exchanged silver and gold for luxury goods such as silk and spices, while newly developed colonial economies in the Americas often depended on agriculture. American plantations relied on existing labor systems and also introduced new labor systems. Among these were indentured servitude, arrangements through which servants contracted to work for a specified period of years in exchange for passage. Another was chattel slavery, a system in which individuals were considered as property to be bought and sold. The appalling shock of free people being seized and enslaved is captured in the griot storyteller song of the West African Wolof people. The growth of the plantation economy increased the demand for enslaved Africans in the Americas, leading to significant demographic, social, and cultural changes. State-Building and Empire Expansion The explorations of European states see Topic.2 were the foundation of maritime empires. States claimed lands and established the basis of an empire in the areas they explored. 218 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Trading Posts in Africa and Asia Certain regions of East and West Africa were the targets of European conquest during the late 15th century. Portuguese ruler Prince Henry the Navigator was keenly interested in navigational technology. See Topic.2. He financed expeditions along Africa’s Atlantic Coast and around the Cape of Good Hope, exploring African coastal communities before other European powers. With the cooperation of local rulers, first Portuguese and then other European traders set up trading posts along Africa’s coasts. Some local rulers traded enslaved people to the Europeans in exchange for gunpowder and cannons, giving those coastal governments a military advantage when battling neighboring villages. Some African city-states grew wealthy by selling enslaved Africans to Europeans. In particular, the ingdom of Dahomey grew stronger because it raided other villages to enslave people, and sold them to European merchants. African States In central West Africa, Portuguese explorers, traders, and missionaries made inroads into the ongo and Benin kingdoms. Artwork from these societies bears signs of European as well as African cultural influences. As early as the 16th century, Benin artisans incorporated images of the European “intruder” into their carvings and sculptures. Yet the expansion of maritime trading networks supported the growth of some African states, including the Asante Empire and the Kingdom of the Kongo. Their participation in trade led to an increase in their influence. In 1 8, Portuguese explorer asco da Gama see Topic.1 invaded the Swahili city-states of East Africa, most of which were thriving commercial centers in the Indian Ocean trade. The Portuguese took over trade in ilwa, Mombasa, and other city-states by sending heavily armed ships and building fortresses. This takeover threw the region into a devastating decline. Japan Just as European states were expanding their trade networks, Japan was sharply restricting its networks. Japan had tolerated the first Portuguese and Dutch traders and missionaries in the mid-16th century. Thousands of Japanese converted to Christianity. Some Christians, intolerant of other faiths, destroyed Buddhist shrines. In response, in 158 , the Japanese government banned Christian worship services. Over the next 0 years, Japan took additional steps to persecute Christians and limit foreign influences. By the 16 0s, the government had expelled nearly all foreigners, banned most foreign books, and prohibited Japanese people from traveling abroad. For more than two centuries, Japan was partially isolated from the rest of the world. They allowed some Dutch merchants to live on a small island in Nagasaki harbor, in almost total seclusion. In addition, Japan continued some trade with the Chinese, mostly carried out by regional lords who were far from the capital city with easy access by sea to orea, Taiwan, and Okinawa. The Japanese thought that they were through with the “uncouth” Europeans. However, Europeans and Americans would return in the mid-1 th century. China After the voyages of heng He in the 15th century, the Ming MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 219 Dynasty tried to limit outside influence on China by restricting trade. The Ming prohibited private foreign trade, destroyed some dockyards, limited the size of ships that could be built, and began reconstructing the Great Wall. These changes were part of a broader pattern of conservatism under the Ming to undo the influence of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty that ruled China before them. For example, the Ming reemphasized the importance of Confucianism and reinvigorated the traditional exam system. Many of the limits on trade were eventually reversed, and China resumed its important role in global trade. European Rivalries on Five Continents European rivalries fueled by political, economic, and religious motives shaped the expansion of empires. Several powers established trading posts in India: The British East India Company had begun a commercial relationship with the Mughal Empire in the 1 th century. Portugal controlled a coastal trading post in the southwestern state of Goa. France controlled Pondicherry, a city in the southeastern state of Tamil Nadu. During the mid-18th century, France and Great Britain, along with their respective allies, competed for power on five continents in the Seven Years’ War. Britain’s victory in that war in 1 6 drove the French out of India. The Portuguese remained in India until driven out in the mid-20th century. British in India At first, British trading posts in India were typical of those established by Europeans in India and elsewhere. The East India Company EIC established small forts on the coasts that focused solely on making a profit through trade. Limited by the power of India’s Mughal Empire, the EIC posts controlled very little territory. However, the EIC then began to expand. It took advantage of the tensions between Muslims and Hindus in India and began to increase its political power through treaties with local rulers. With the help of European-trained Indian private forces called sepoys, the East India Company moved inland, spreading its influence. Ultimately, Britain intervened in India politically and militarily to such an extent that it controlled much of the subcontinent. The British Global Network The British also set up trading posts in West Africa, where the Asante Empire limited their impact. Trading posts in Africa, India, and elsewhere paved the way for globalization. Each post became a node, an intersection of multiple points serving as a trade center for goods from many parts of the world. Europeans in the Americas Before the arrival of Europeans in the late 15th century, the Aztec Empire in Mexico and the Inca Empire in South America each included 10 million to 15 million people. However, the spread of European diseases caused their populations to plummet. Both empires collapsed quickly when attacked by Spanish forces. 220 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION In Mexico, helped by groups that the Aztecs had conquered, Cort s’s forces overthrew the Aztec by 1521 and established the colony of New Spain. The Spaniards melted down the Aztecs’ treasures and sent the gold back home. They destroyed Tenochtitl n and built their own capital, Mexico City, on its ruins. In the Andes of South America, Francisco Pizarro and his crew attacked the Inca and captured their ruler, Atahualpa. Pizarro offered to release Atahualpa if the Inca would fill a large room with gold. The Inca complied. However, in 15 the Spanish killed Atahualpa anyway. By 15 2, the Spaniards had completed their conquest of the Inca Empire. Spain Versus Portugal In the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1 , Spain and Portugal divided the Americas between them. Spain reserved all lands to the west of a meridian that went through eastern South America. Portugal reserved all lands east of this line. This arrangement put Brazil under Portugal’s rule, while Spain claimed the rest of the Americas. Spanish and Portuguese Colonies, c. 1600 Gulf of ATLANTIC Mexico OCEAN Mexico City Treaty of AZTECS Caribbean Tordesillas, 1494 LA Sea T IN A VENEZUELA M E PACIFIC A m a z o n R. R OCEAN IC INC A AS BRAZIL Lima SOUTH AMERICA Potosi Spain Portugal 0 500 Miles 0 500 Kilometers MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 221  In addition to establishing colonies in Mesoamerica and South America, Spain explored other parts of North America north of present-day Mexico. The explorer Pedro Men ndez de Avil s established a fort in St. Augustine on the east coast of Florida in 1565, which became the oldest continuous settlement in what later became the United States. Spain would not be able to control all of North America, however, because the French, British, and Dutch later made claims and settlements there. France Versus Britain France and Britain continued to vie for dominance in North America. As British settlers moved into former Dutch territory in upper New York, they began to form ties with the powerful Iroquois, who had been in conflict with the French over trade issues for decades. The British hoped that the Iroquois could frustrate French trade interests. Over time, the Iroquois began to realize that the British posed more of a threat than the French. In a shift of alliances, the Iroquois and French signed a peace treaty known as the Great Peace of Montreal in 1 01. In the same war in which Britain drove France out of India, the British drove France out of Canada as well. The North American portion of this war is sometimes called the French and Indian War. French, English, and Dutch Colonies, c. 1650 Hudson Bay HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY (ENGLAND) The Great Quebec Lakes. onR NORTH s Hud AMERICA Philadelphia R. New York City R. io Oh pi New Jame s s ip France s R. Jamestown ATLANTIC iss i OCEAN M Dutch colonies New Spain Gulf British of colonies Mexico 0 500 Miles 0 500 Kilometers Continuity and Change in Economic Systems Although the intensification of trade and the increasing influence of Europeans brought some disruption to the Indian Ocean trading networks, on the whole, the system absorbed the changes and continued its familiar ways of doing business. Merchants in the Indian Ocean networks were used to paying taxes and fees to states controlling sea lanes and ports and operated often through 222 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION religious and ethnic ties. They did not use arms to protect their trade, and if the fees in one trading center became too high, they were free to move elsewhere. Europeans in the Indian Ocean Trade The Portuguese, however, arrived with superior naval forces, religious zeal, and a determination to profit from the increasingly diverse products being traded, both from Asia to Europe and also within Asia. In addition to porcelain and silk from China, cloth from Gujarati weavers in western India, agricultural goods from Java, and spices from many places created an abundant market for trade and profit. In contrast to the ethnic and religious trading ties developed over hundreds of years, the Portuguese used their military superiority to take control of trade, creating a string of armed trading posts along the trade routes of the Indian Ocean. In 150 , for example, the Portuguese had a decisive victory in the Battle of Diu in the Arabian Sea over the combined forces of Gujaratis, the Mamluks of Egypt, and the amorin of Calicut with the support of enice, Portugal’s European competitor. Despite the differences between the traditional trading networks and those controlled by European powers, merchants in the Indian Ocean trade networks continued as before in many ways paying for the right to use certain ports or passageways and developing trade links through traditional networks. Spain and Gold in the Americas The Western European search for profit began with Columbus. On his first voyage, he was convinced that gold was plentiful on Hispaniola, the name he gave the island now occupied by Haiti and the Dominican Republic. But gold was sparse in the Caribbean. Desiring to return home with something valuable, Columbus and his crew kidnapped Tainos, indigenous peoples, and took them, enslaved, to Spain. In the early 1500s, the Spanish established a system called the encomienda to gain access to gold and other resources of the Americas. Encomenderos, or landowners, compelled indigenous people to work for them in exchange for food and shelter, as landowners required of serfs in Europe’s manorial system. This coercive labor system was notorious for its brutality. The Spanish crown often granted land to conquistadores as a reward for their efforts. The hacienda system arose when landowners developed agriculture on their lands wheat, fruit, vegetables, and sugar. They used coerced labor to work the fields. Most conquistadores were men and many had children with native women. This made the Spanish colonies unlike British colonies. Silver While gold did not yield riches for Spanish conquistadores, the discovery of silver in Mexico and Peru revived economic fortunes for both individual explorers and Spain. The use of mercury to separate silver from its ore increased the profitability of silver mining. By the end of the 16th century, the cities of acatecas, in Mexico, and especially Potos , in the Andes Mountains in modern-day Bolivia, became thriving centers of silver mining. For this industry to flourish, Spanish prospectors needed labor. The indigenous populations would do all but the most dangerous work in the mines. In response, Spanish authorities in Peru transformed the traditional MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 223 Incan mit’a system of labor obligation, in which young men were required to devote a certain amount of labor to public works projects, into a coerced labor system. illages were compelled to send a percentage of their male population to do the dangerous work in the mines for a paltry wage. Silver and Mercantilism The silver trade not only made individual Spanish prospectors wealthy, it also strengthened the Spanish economy. European powers at the time were adopting mercantilism, an economic system that increased government control of the economy through high tariffs and the establishment of colonies, claimed lands settled by immigrants from the home country. In the case of Spain, the main purpose of the colonies in the Americas was to supply as much gold and silver as possible. Another way to increase national wealth, according to the mercantilist system, was for a colonizing country to export more than it imported. A percentage of overseas silver production went directly to the Spanish crown. The empire used this wealth to build up the military and establish foreign trade. Continuity and Change in Labor Systems Different regions and different economies used different labor systems. Types of Labor in the Early Modern Period Laborer Location e of or Freedoms/Limits Enslaved Americas Domestic labor Considered property Africa Agricultural labor Had few or no rights Serf Europe Subsistence Attached to the land: not free to Asia farming move at will Most of the yield Had little or no legal protection belonged to the lord Indentured All Domestic labor Employer paid for transport to a Servant regions ield work new location Individual worked without pay for up to seven years Free Europe arming Worked on their own land Peasant Asia Craft labor Sometimes owned a business (blacksmithing, Paid taxes to the lord weaving, etc.) Paid tithes to the church Nomad Europe Animal breeding Did not own land permanently Asia Pastoralism Used land temporarily Africa Herding Had freedom to move Guild Europe Skilled craft labor Started as an apprentice Member Workers organized Could eventually work to set standards for independently quality and price 224 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  During this era, Europeans sought sources of inexpensive labor in the Americas. Western European countries such as Portugal, Spain, and England were developing their naval technology, but Portugal was ahead of the others. In West Africa during the latter part of the 1 00s, Portuguese trading fleets arrived in the ingdom of the ongo seeking enslaved people. Initially they took the enslaved Africans back to Europe to work as domestic servants. Slavery existed in Africa including the extensive enslavement of women as household workers well before Europeans sought labor for their investments in the Americas. For example, in many societies, the entire community shared the land. In order to establish positions of wealth and power, individuals not only showcased the property they owned, but also showcased the enslaved people they owned. Europeans were also not the first foreigners to seek out African labor. Arab merchants during the Postclassical Era 600 1 50 often bought enslaved people during their travels to the Swahili Coast of East Africa. However, it was the Atlantic slave trade that wreaked the most havoc on African societies. Connect: Compose a graphic organizer comparing slavery during Sub-Saharan Africa’s early colonial period with slavery from 600 to 1 50. See Topic 2.. Why Africans? Several factors converged to make Africa a target for slave raids by Europeans after 1 50. Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean began toward the end of the 16th century, when European conquistadores sought fortunes in gold, silver, and sugar. Land was plentiful, but labor to make the land profitable was scarce. Europeans initially forced indigenous people to do the hard labor of mining and farming, but European diseases wiped out large portions of these coerced laborers. The enslaved indigenous people who survived often escaped bondage because, compared to Europeans, they were more familiar with the territory, had social networks that could protect them, and could easily camouflage themselves within the native population. Repeated efforts to enslave Native Americans failed, although other efforts to coerce labor did have some success. Labor for Plantations In North America, plantation owners recruited European indentured servants who would come to work, mostly to grow tobacco, for a specified period in exchange for passage, room, and board. However, most of these people were not used to the backbreaking agricultural working conditions and the climate of the Americas. In addition, indentured servants were required to work for only about seven years. If they survived their indenture, they became free laborers. Thus, landowners did not think of indigenous captives and European indentured servants as ideal workers. Transport of Enslaved Africans to the Americas Capturing Africans for slavery was invariably violent. When African leaders along the coast realized that their kingdoms could economically benefit from the slave trade, they invaded neighboring societies in a quest for enslaved people to take back to the coast. At times, African rulers were also willing to hand over individuals from the lower rungs of their own societies, such as prisoners of war, servants, or criminals. MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 225  However, ing Afonso of ongo understood that slave raids were not easily controllable. Though he had initially allowed slave trading in his kingdom, he had no intention of giving up his society’s elite to slavery, nor did he want ongo to be depopulated. ing Afonso also saw that his authority was undermined because his subjects were able to trade enslaved people for European goods without his involvement. Before the Europeans came, he had been able to control all trade in his domain. Source: Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain Enslaved people being transported in Africa, 1 th century engraving The Horrors of the Journey Captive Africans, swept away from their families, were taken to holding pens in West Africa known as barracoons, or “slave castles.” The modern country of Ghana has preserved these “Points of No Return,” where thousands upon thousands of Africans saw their homeland for the last time. Today, people can visit one such holding prison the so-called House of Slaves on Ile de Gor e Gor e Island , on the coast of Senegal. From these holding pens, slave traders next crammed their captives into the dank cargo section of a ship, providing them little water, food, or even room for movement. The grueling journey across the Atlantic was known as the Middle Passage, because it was the middle part of the captives’ journey. Many captured Africans attempted rebellions at sea, but most uprisings were crushed. During the journey to the Americas, which usually took about six weeks, up to half of a ship’s captives might die. Over the hundreds of years of the Atlantic slave trade, from the early 1500s to the mid-1 th century, 10 to 15 percent of all African captives perished before reaching the Americas. Connect: Write an outline of the effects of the Atlantic slave trade on Africa. See Topic.. 226 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION  Destination of Enslaved Africans by Colonial Region Destination Percentage Portuguese Colonies 39% British West Indian Colonies 18% Spanish Colonies 18% French Colonies 14% British Mainland Colonies 6% Dutch West Indian Colonies 2% Other 3% Source: Stephen D. Behrendt et al. Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Demographic, Social, and Cultural Changes The growth of the planation economy and the expansion of slavery in the Americas led to significant changes that affected not only countless individual lives but also broad patterns of history. The physical migration of captives had significant impact on the demographics of both their African homes and the countries of their captivity. The exportation of enslaved people that was required to keep the population continuing in the country of captivity caused a century-long decline in population in African home countries. In addition to physical migration, slavery resulted in a migration of status, from free person to enslaved, setting up social classes that remain influential in post-slavery countries. Further, it disrupted family organization, since families were often separated, and more men than women were taken captive. Polygyny having more than one wife became more common. With people treated as commodities, as chattel slavery, social and family groupings were determined more by supply and demand than by the familial bonds of kinship. Each region in which slavery was introduced was affected in a unique way. However, in all of them, people with African roots helped shape and enrich the language and culture of the societies into which they were brought. The mixing of ethnic groups resulted in new groups of multiracial people, such as mestizos and mulattos. The Indian Ocean Slave Trade While most Africans who were enslaved and transported to the Americas came from west and central Africa, there was a long-running slave trade in the eastern part of the continent. By routes overland or in the Indian Ocean, enslaved East Africans were sold to buyers in northern Africa, the Middle East, and India. Many were transported to the islands off the southeast coast of Africa, such as Madagascar. The trade reached its peak in the 18th and 1 th centuries. MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 227  Enslaved people taken in the Indian Ocean trade suffered different fates from those taken across the Atlantic. People from the Indian Ocean region were more likely to work in seaports as laborers in the shipping industry and as household servants. Some worked as sailors or even soldiers. Living in towns or cities, they had some opportunity to develop communities and to work alongside free laborers. Those who ended up in Islamic communities had certain rights, such as the right to marry. As a result of the Indian Ocean slave trade, African words, musical styles, and customs can be found in Oman, India, and elsewhere. KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT: African GOVERNMENT: Americas ECONOMY: Economic States Aztec Empire Systems Asante Empire Inca Empire mercantilism Kingdom of the Kongo New Spain colonies GOVERNMENT: East Asian Mexico City ECONOMY: Labor Systems States Francisco Pizarro indentured servitude Ming Dynasty Atahualpa chattel slavery Treaty of Tordesillas encomienda Hispaniola encomenderos conquistadores coercive labor system ECONOMY: Products hacienda system silver mit’a system Middle Passage 228 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the image below. 1. One Source: Oil on canvas. 1 60. Juan Patricio Morlete Ruiz 1 1 -1 2 Gift of the 2011 Collectors Committee LACMA A Spanish colonist, an American Indian woman, and their child difference between Spanish and British colonies reflected in this painting is that in Spanish colonies men were more likely to A be a farmer B be married to a woman much younger than himself C have a child with a Native woman D have accumulated considerable wealth 2. In which region is this painting most likely set A Hudson Bay B Gulf of Mexico C James River D Great Lakes MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 229 3. Which of the following best describes the cultural exchange represented in the painting A The man has adopted aspects of the culture of the woman. B The child is dressed in native-style clothing. C The plants are mostly of European origin. D The woman has adopted aspects of the culture of the man. SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows. “The widespread use of slavery was a systematic Spanish adaptation on the north Mexican frontier wherever nomadic Indians were encountered. Almost at the very moment that the New Laws 15 2 made slavery illegal in Mesoamerican Mexico, the Mixt n War 15 1-15 2 in Nueva Galicia provided the initial reason for retaining the practice legally on the frontier for generations. The discovery of silver at acatecas sealed the fate of Spanish-Indian relations not only on the Gran Chichimeca, but throughout most of the North. The inevitable resistance by hunter-gatherers to Spanish domination, the shortage of labor, and the semiautonomous political power wielded by provincial and local authorities insured the survival of slavery and encomienda in northern New Spain into the eighteenth century.” Jos Cuello, The Persistence of Indian Slavery and Encomienda in the Northeast of Colonial Mexico, 1577–1723, 1 88 A Identify Cuello’s argument in the passage. B Explain ONE way in which the treatment of enslaved people in Mexico was different from the treatment of people taken in the Indian Ocean trade in the period 1 50 1 50. C Explain ONE historical situation in the period 1 50 1 50, other than the one illustrated in the passage, in which European states transformed the lives of colonized states. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. A Identify ONE economic impact that the mit’a system had on