Theories of Learning - ITP-2nd-NA-to PDF

CHAPTER 5 : Theories of Learning -------------------------------- **Learning** - It refers to relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice, experience or training. 1. **Connectionism** *(Edward Lee Thorndike)* - all learning is explained by connections or bon...

CHAPTER 5 : Theories of Learning -------------------------------- **Learning** - It refers to relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice, experience or training. 1. **Connectionism** *(Edward Lee Thorndike)* - all learning is explained by connections or bonds formed **[LAWS OF LEARNING BY EDWARD LEE]** 1. *Laws of readiness* -- physiologically and psychologically prepared. 2. *Laws of exercise* -- repetitions and rehearsals 3. *Laws of effect* - the consequence of a certain response is favorable or satisfying. 2. **Classical Conditioning** *(Ivan Pavlov)* - **neutral stimulus** gains the ability to elicit a response because it has been - He discovered the principle of classical conditioning by accident. - Pavlov wanted to understand how a *dog\'s stomach prepares to digest* - He noticed that the *mere sight or smell of food* was *enough to get the* A. **Unconditioned Stimulus** (UCS) -- *natural stimulus* which automatically elicits a response. (food ) B. **Unconditioned Response** (UCR) - *automatic response* to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation to the food) C. **Conditioned Stimulus** (CS) -- *neutral stimulus* which at first cannot elicit *a response but after pairing* with the UCS is able to elicit CR (bell) D. **Conditioned Response** (C) - learned response to the conditioned stimulus (salivation to the bell) a. **Stimulus generalization -** Giving *similar response to stimuli* that resemble the original stimulus. b. **Stimulus Descrimination** -Giving *different response to different stimuli* c. **Extinction** - *Disappearance of learned response* or the unlearning process d. **Spontaneous Recovery** - The *return of the conditioned response*, the relearning process **OPERANT CONDITIONING** (Burrhus Frederick Skinner) - learning through consequences, there is a need for a performance - Learning is a three part sequence: 1. Antecedents must be present 2. Behavior can occur 3. Consequence of behavior results - Consequences provide either: +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Positive Reinforcement** -- | **Negative Reinforcement** -- | | Adding rewards to maintain or | removing work to repeat the | | encourage to repeat response | response | | | | | **Example**: Naghugas ng pinggan, | **Example**: Tahimik sa class, | | after may pera sya. | then ireremove or excempted sa | | | quizes | +===================================+===================================+ | **Positive Punishment** -- giving | **Negative Punishment** -- | | undesirable consequence for | removing desirable stimulus to | | unwanted behavior to lessen | decrease undesirable response | | | | | **Example:** Hindi naghugas ng | **Example**: Ayaw mag-aral kaka | | pinggan, next day maghuhugas sya | phone, edi tanggalan ng cellphone | | tapos maglilinis ng bahay | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **SHAPING** - is slowly and continually modifying behavior 4\. **Observational or Social Learning** (Albert Bandura) - Learning from watching others' behaviors - "Learner" mimics a "role model" - Children learned to act by watching others **[4 PROCESS INVOLVED IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING]** 1. **Attention** -- the observer *focus his attention* to what distinctive features *on the model he wants to imitate* 2. **Retention** -- the *observer should remember* the observed behavior of the model 3. **Motor reproduction** -- *able to perform* the task of imitating the model 4. **Motivation** -- if the result of *imitating is pleasurable* such feelings serves as motivation to continue imitating CHAPTER 6: Memory ----------------- **Memory** -- is the *ability to remember information*, events and experiences **Memory Processes** 1\. **Encoding**\--*transforming sensory input or information into a code* so that the nervous system can process it. **3 Codes used in remembering**: a. **acoustic codes** -- *saying out loud* or to ourselves repeatedly b. **visual codes** -- keeping a *mental image* of the object c. **semantic codes** -- *making meaning on objects* to remember it. **2. Storage**---*encoded information is saved over a period of time*, it can remain for few seconds or much longer depending on how important it is. **3. Retrieval**---also called "recalling", *process of bringing to mind* that which has been stored in memory **THREE STAGES OF MEMORY** 1\. **Sensory Memory**- brief storage that immediately follow initial stimulation of receptor - **Capacity**---large, can hold many items at once - **Duration**---very brief retention of *images 0.3 sec* for visual info, *2 sec for auditory* info - **Attention** is needed to transfer information to working memory - **Iconic memory** - visual sensory memory, hold visual information up to a second - **Echoic memory** -- auditory information for 1 to 2 seconds - **Haptic memory** -- for touch - **Gustic memory** -- for taste - **Olfactic memory** -- for smell 2**. Short-Term Memory/Working Memory** - store the things we have in our awareness or consciousness - **Capacity**---limited (holds 7 to 8 items) - **Duration**---brief storage (about 30 seconds) 3\. **Long-Term Memory** - *organizes and stores information* Preserving unlimited items of info over *long period of time* - **Capacity -** *Unlimited capacity* - **Duration**---thought by *some to be permanent* - **Explicit memory**---*memory with awareness*; information can be consciously recollected; also called [declarative memory] a. **Episodic memory**--- Memory tied to your own personal experiences within a definited period of time.(Ex. Birthday, anniversary) b. **Semantic memory**---information about facts, general knowledge, school work - **Implicit memory**---*memory without awareness*; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called [nondeclarative memory] - **Autobiographical Memory** - The recollections people have of their own personal experiences and observations. a. **Flashbulb Memories** - Highly vivid and enduring memories, typically for events that are dramatic and emotional. b. **Childhood Amnesia** - The inability of most people to recall events from before the age of three or four. c. **Hindsight Bias** - The tendency to think after an event that one knew in advance what was going to happen. **FORGETTING AS RETRIEVAL FAILURE** - **Retrieval---**process of accessing stored information - Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can't retrieve it **Measures of Retrieval** ** Recall---**retrieving what is stored in the LTM without any reminder cues. Ex. Essay and enumeration test a. **Free recall --** answers can be given in no particular order b. **Serial recall --** answer requires specific arrangement ** Recognition---**test of LTM that involves identifying correct information from a series of possible choices Ex. Multiple choice **MEMORY DISTORTION** - Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas - Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information. 1. **Encoding Failures** - Even though you've seen thousands of pennies, you've probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features 2. **Interference Theories** - "Memories interfering with memories" - Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time - Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory - Two types of interference **Two Types of Interference** 1. **Retroactive Interference** - New information blocks our recall of previously learned information - Example: forgetting your old number because of your new one 2. **Proactive Interference** - Old information hinders us from recalling new events and information - Forgetting the new one because you are used of the old ones. - Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today. 3. **Motivated Forgetting** - Undesired memory is held back from awareness - **Suppression---**conscious forgetting - **Repression---**unconscious forgetting (Freudian) 4. **Decay Theories** - Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused - Time plays critical role - Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding. **MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL** - Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds - Ex. Repeating the lyrics of the song until u memorize it \-\-- STORED in Long Term Memory THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE - 2 types of intelligence - **Crystallized Intelligence** -- learning from past experiences and learning - Situations that require crystallized intelligence include reading comprehension and vocabulary exams. - based upon facts and rooted in experiences. - It becomes stronger as we age and accumulate new - **Fluid Intelligence** - the ability to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. - This ability is considered independent of learning, experience, and education. - Examples: solving puzzles and coming up with problem solving strategies. - Both types of intelligence increase throughout childhood and adolescence. **5 Theories of Intelligence** 1. Charles Spearman (1863-1945) - Theorized that a general intelligence factor (g) underlies other, more specific aspects of intelligence - Based this on how he noticed people who did well on one test tended to do similarly well on others. 2. Louis L. Thurstone - Intelligence is a cluster of abilities. - Believed that there were different "primary mental abilities" each independent from the other. - Examples: Verbal Comprehension, numerical ability, reasoning & perceptual speed - The *g* factor was just an overall average score of these independent abilities. - Looked for a pattern of mental abilities like Wechsler. 3. Howard Gardner's 1943 (Multiple Intelligences) - Author of a contemporary theory of multiple intelligences consisting of eight separate kinds of intelligence - Multiple Intelligences -- several [independent] mental abilities that allow a person to solve problems, create products that are valued within one's culture. - Intelligence defined within the context of culture 4. Robert Sternberg (1949- ) - Author of a Triarchic theory of multiple intelligences consisting of of 3 mental *abilities* - Disagrees with Gardner in calling these *intelligences.* Instead believes these are talents or abilities. Said Intelligence is a general quality - Stresses both the universal aspects of intelligent behavior and the importance of adapting to a certain social and cultural climate. - Also called Successful Intelligence - Analytic intelligence---mental processes used in learning how to solve problems - Creative intelligence---ability to deal with novel situations by drawing on existing skills and knowledge - Practical intelligence---ability to adapt to the environment (street smarts)  Emotional Intelligence - The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions - People high in emotional intelligence are more in touch with their feelings and the feelings of others. Controversies: Race and IQ Average IQ score differ for various racial and ethnic groups - Asian Americans - Whites - Latina - African Americans **Genetics Environment** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Heritability estimates for IQ | - Like other traits, IQ is | | is about.50 in a population | changeable (height for | | | example). | | | | | | - Educational experiences | | | affect IQ | | | | | | - IQ scores have increased over | | | the years (nutritional | | | factors, increasing access to | | | information) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ PERSONALITY =========== **Meaning and Nature of Personality** - Salvador Maddi - "a STABLE set of INTRAPSYCHIC (INTERNAL) characteristics and tendencies that determines the psychological behavior of people. The behavior determined by personality is RELATIVELY CONSISTENT over time." - The word 'personality' was derived from the Latin word 'persona' which means 'mask'. People wear masks in the sense that the behavior that is manifested may differ on the situations that they are into and people would have to \"fit in\" to those situations. - Adams - personality is \"I.\" Adams suggested that we get a good idea of what personality is by listening to what we say when we use "I\". When you say I, you are summing up everything about yourself - your likes and dislikes, fears and virtues, strengths and weaknesses. **OTHER DEFINITIONS OF PERSONALITY** - "The entire organization of a human being at any stage of development principle at the top\" - "Levels or layers of dispositions, usually with a unifying or integrative principle of the top" - "The integration of systems or habits that represent an individual\'s characteristic adjustments to the environment\" - \"Ways of which the person does such things as remembering. thinking, or loving" - \"Those characteristics that account for consistent patterns of behavior\" - "Personality is not an existing substantive entity to be searched for but as a complex construct to be developed and defined by the observer.\" (Smith &Vetter, 1982, p.5) - William C. Meanninger \'all that a persona has been, is, and hopes to be.\" - Ernest R. Hilgard - \"the sum total of individual characteristics and ways of behaving, which in their organization or patterning, describe an individual\'s unique adjustment to his environment." - Joseph Arnold - "the total behavior patterns of a person". Personality is the person\'s complete "package" which consists of the individual\'s physical makeup and thoughts, memories, feelings, motives, reactions, and experiences. The personality of each individual is unique. **FACTORS THAT DETERMINE AND INFLUENCE PERSONALITY** **GENETICS AND HEREDITARY FACTORS** 1. **EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTES**. Examples of which are the physical traits like body built, complexion of the skin, facial contours and physical appearance in general. 2. **INTERNAL ATTRIBUTES**. Those refers to the conditions of the nervous system, endocrine system and also the I.Q. level of the individual. **ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS** 1. **PRIMARY GROUP** - An intimate face to face association and cooperation is the characteristic of the primary group. - These are our family, playmates, and neighborhood, school, the church, and other small units can also be added to these groups. - The child first learns ways of thinking, acting, and relating to others from his family. - The child learns largely in two ways. He realized that he is either rewarded or punished by his family, depending upon whether he complies or not seems to gain the approval of others. a. **ASSIGNED ROLES** (we have no control over) - We are assigned to play the role of a boy or a girl, as member of a particular family, or of a certain nationality or race. b. **ACQUIRED ROLES** (we have a choice) - We have a choice as to be honest or not, to steal or not. A child is not born honest but he can be taught to be honest. You may prefer basketball as a recreational preference because your father was a popular basketball player. 2. **SECONDARY GROUP** - Personality development continues in secondary groups. - This occurs when the individual increases his level of interaction with his society. - Ideally, this happens during the time that the individual enters school or when the family relocates from one place to another. - From the conditioned behavior the child possesses, there will be a shift to a well-regulated behavior. - In the larger environment, the child\'s personality would be reshaped in order for him to live up to the norms of his new environment. 3. **CULTURAL INFLUENCES** - Personality is not only greatly affected by heredity and its environment. Culture is also considered to be a factor in shaping one\'s personality. - Human beings are involved in social interactions wherein humans have to maintain certain relationships with the people and other species in his environment. - The behavior that the person manifested starts a chain of reactions whether it is positive or negative towards the person. - Culture is passed on from generation to generation and the individual on the present time has to practice the culture in order for them to pass in on to the next generation for its continuity. **TRAITS AND STATES** **TRAITS -** are enduring dimensions of personality characteristics along which people differ, thus it distinguishes the qualities or characteristics of a person. It refers to the readiness to think or act in a similar fashion in response to a variety of different stimuli or situations. **STATE** - is considered as a temporary alteration of one\'s personality, trait assumes that people differ on variables or dimensions that are continuous. People are seen to be different in the amounts or quantities of a characteristic rather than differ in the quality of their characteristics. **IDIOGRAPHIC vs NOMOTHETIC** **IDIOGRAPHIC VIEW** - views people to have unique personality structures: thus, some traits like the cardinal trait is more important in understanding the structure of some people than others. - The Idiographic view gives emphasis to the unique psychological structure and that some traits are possessed by only one person. Therefore, the view believes that it is impossible to compare one person with others. This viewpoint also gives emphasis in the variation of importance from person to person. It uses methods such as case studies, bibliographical information, diaries, etc. for information gathering. **NOMOTHETIC VIEW** indicates the people\'s unique personalities can be understood as having relatively greater or lesser amounts of traits that are consistent across people. - The Nomothetic view, on the other hand, emphasizes comparability among individuals but sees people as unique in their combination of traits. This viewpoint sees traits as having the same psychological meaning in everyone. The belief is that people differ only in the amount of each trait. **THEORIES OF PERSONALITY** different theories about how personality develops. Theories of personality are explored in order to have a better understanding about the different personalities that people exhibit. 1. **TRAIT THEORIES -** Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV-TR) - personality traits are \"enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts." The least controversial dimension, observed as far back as the ancient Greeks, is simply **EXTRAVERSION** - for a person who is outgoing and oriented through physical stimulation. **INTROVERSION** - who manifests behavior like being quiet and has adverse physical-stimulation. A. **Gordon Allport** - central traits as the basis to an individual\'s personality, while secondary traits are more peripheral. Common traits are those recognized within a culture and thus, may vary from culture to culture. Cardinal traits are those by which an individual may be strongly recognized. B. **Raymond Cattell\'s** (a two-tiered personality structure with sixteen \"primary factors" - 16 Personality) C. **Hans Eysenck** - who believed that just three traits: i. Extraversion (sociable, lively, active, and assertive) ii. Neuroticism (anxious, depressed, guilt feelings, low self-esteem) iii. Psychoticism (aggressive, cold, egocentric, impulsive) were sufficient to describe human personality. D. **Lewis Goldberg** (Big Five -- OCEAN) - Openness to experience - open to new ideas and change vs. traditional and oriented toward routine - Conscientiousness - dutiful, organized, and orderly vs. laid back, spontaneous, and unreliable - Extraversion - outgoing and stimulation-oriented vs. quiet and stimulation- avoiding - Agreeableness - affable, friendly, conciliatory vs. aggressive, dominant, disagreeable - Neuroticism - emotionally reactive, prone to negative emotions vs. calm, imperturbable, optimistic 2. **TYPE THEORIES** - Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people. Personality types differ from personality traits in different levels or degrees. Proposed by many people specially Carl Jung A. Extraversion vs. Introversion B. Intuition vs. Sensing where trust in conceptual/abstract models of reality versus concrete sensory-oriented facts C. Thinking vs. Feeling it considers thinking as the prime-mover indecision-making vs. feelings as the prime-mover in decision-making D. Perceiving vs. Judging as desire to perceive events vs. desire to have things done so judgments can be made. 3. **PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES** - The Psychoanalytic theory *describes development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion*. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. A. **Sigmund Freud** -- ([Father of Psychoanalysis]) human personality can be broken down to three significant components: i. **ID** *(the savage desires and raw urges)* - It is considered to be the source of sexual energy, pleasure seeking principle is the motivating factor behind the structure. ii. **EGO** *(reality-testing structure)* - It emerges in order to realistically meet the wishes and demands of the id in accordance with the outside world. iii. **SUPEREGO** (moral arm of personality) exercises moral judgment and societal rules in keeping the ego and id in check. - **Oral Stage (birth to 1 year old)** - pleasure is located in the mouth. - **Anal Stage (2 years old)** - pleasure is primarily in the anus. - **Phallic Stage (3-6 years old)** - manipulation of the phallus is prominent, Oedipus and Electra complex is present. - **Latency Period (7 years old-puberty)** - there is repression of sexual interests. Instead, social and intellectual skills are developed. - **Genital Stage (puberty-onwards)** - a time of sexual reawakening and the source of sexual pleasure becomes with someone who is outside the family. 4. NEO-FREUDIAN CONCEPTS A. **Alfred Adler (birth order)** i. **OLDEST CHILDREN -** the one that set high goals to achieve to get attention back that they lost when the younger siblings were born. ii. **MIDDLE CHILDREN** - the competitive and ambitious possibly so they are able to surpass the first-born\'s achievements, but were not as much concerned about the glory. iii. **LAST BORN** - would be more dependent and sociable but be the baby. iv. **ONLY CHILDREN** love being the center of attention and mature quickly, but in the end fail to become independent. B. Heinz Kohut -- (self-object transferences of mirroring and idealization) - children need to idealize and emotionally "sink into" and identify with the idealized competence of admired figures such as parents or older siblings. They also need to have their self-worth mirrored by these people. C. Karen Horney (real self and the ideal self)- She believes that all people have these two views of their own self. i. **"REAL SELF" -** is how you really are with regards to personality, values, and morals; ii. **"IDEAL SELF" -** is a construct you apply to yourself to conform to social and personal norms and goals. 5. Behaviorist theories - Behaviorists explain personality in terms of reactions to external stimuli. This school of thought puts forth a model which emphasized the mutual interaction of the person or \"the organism" with its environment. - Behaviorism believes that children do bad things in order to get the attention that they crave. These are known as the stimulus, response, and consequences. - The stimulus is the child being ignored, the response is the child acting out, and the attention that child gets is the consequence. According to this theory, people\'s behavior is armed by processes such as operant conditioning. A. Ivan Pavlov. He is well-known for his classical condition experiments utilizing a dog. i. **Unconditioned Stimulus** (UCS) -- *natural stimulus* which automatically elicits a response. (food ) ii. **Unconditioned Response** (UCR) - *automatic response* to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation to the food) iii. **Conditioned Stimulus** (CS) -- *neutral stimulus* which at first cannot elicit *a response but after pairing* with the UCS is able to elicit CR (bell) iv. **Conditioned Response** (C) - learned response to the conditioned stimulus (salivation to the bell) B. **John B. Watson** (Father of American Behaviorism) made four major assumptions about radical Behaviorisms: i. **EVOLUTIONARY CONTINUITY**: The laws of behavior are applied equally to all living organisms, so we can study animals as simple models of complex human responses. ii. **REDUCTIONISM:** All behaviors are linked to physiology. iii. **DETERMINISM:** Animals do not respond free, they respond in a programmed way to external stimuli. Biological organisms respond to outside influences. iv. **EMPIRICISM:** Only our actions are observable evidence of our personality. Psychology should involve the study of observable behavior. **6. COGNITIVE THEORIES** - behavior is explained as guided by cognitions or expectations about the world, especially those about other people. Cognitive theories are theories of personality that emphasize cognitive processes such as thinking and judging. A. **ALBERT BANDURA** (bobo doll)- During the experiment, Bandura videotaped a college student kicking and verbally abusing a bobo doll. - Learning from watching others' behaviors - "Learner" mimics a "role model" - Children learned to act by watching others Other theories central to this field have been: - **SELF-EFFICACY WORK** - dealing with confidence people have in abilities to do tasks (Bandura, 1997); - **LOCUS OF CONTROL THEORY** - dealing with different beliefs people have about whether their worlds are controlled by themselves or external factors; - **ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE THEORY** - dealing with different ways in which people explain events in their lives. This approach builds upon locus of control, but extends it by stating that we also need to consider whether people attribute to stable causes or variable causes and to global causes or specific causes. B. **WALTER MISCHEL** "Cognitive Affective Units\" - encoding of stimuli affect goal-setting and self-regulatory beliefs considered as a factor in the development of personality. The term "Cognitive Affective Units" shows how his approach considers affect as well as cognition. C. **ALBERT ELLIS** *(grandfather of cognitive-behavioral therapy)* - developed the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) - required that the therapist helps the client understand and act on the understanding that his personal philosophy contains common irrational beliefs that lead to his own emotional pain. Because thinking and emotion have a cause and effect relationship. i. A (activating event) ii. B (belief system) iii. C (the emotional consequence) D. **AARON BECK** ( father of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) - suggested that nearly all psychological dilemmas can be redirected in a positive (helpful) manner with the changing of the suffering individual\'s thought processes. Aaron Beck\'s continuing research in the field has proven to be a greater success over time. 7. **PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY ** **Homburger Erikson** - personality  develops in a series of stages. But unlike the Freud\'s theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson\'s  theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole life span.  - **EGO IDENTITY -** is the **conscious sense of self** that we  develop through social interaction, it is constantly changes  due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with other  individuals in our environment. Furthermore, Erikson also established a belief that a sense  of competence also motivates behaviors and actions.  **8. HUMANISTIC THEORIES ** In humanistic psychology, it is emphasized that people have **free will** and determining how they behave. Accordingly, that they play an active role humanistic  psychology focuses on subjective experiences of persons as opposed to forced, definitive  factors that determine behavior.  A. **ABRAHAM MASLOW** ("self-actualizing persons") - "fulfilling themselves and doing the best that they are capable of doing."  Maslow believes that all who are interested in growth move towards self-actualizing views.  Many of these people demonstrate a trend in dimensions of their personalities.  - **Awareness** - maintaining constant enjoyment and awe of life. These individuals often  experienced a "peak experience." A peak experience is one in which an individual  perceives an expansion of his or herself, and detects a unity and meaningfulness in life. - **Reality and problem centered** have the tendency to be concerned with \"problems" in their surroundings.  - **Acceptance/Spontaneity** accepts their surroundings and what cannot be changed.  - **Unhostile sense of humor/democratic**, those who do not like joking about others, which can be viewed as offensive.  **9. BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES ** **PERSONALITY DISORDERS ** - identified by a pervasive pattern of experience and behavior that is abnormal with respect to any two of the following: thinking, mood, personal relations, and the  control of impulses.  - The character of a person is shown through his or her personality by the way an individual thinks, feels, and behaves. When the behavior is inflexible, maladaptive, and antisocial, then that  individual is diagnosed with a personality disorder.  Personality disorders are not illnesses in a strict sense as they do not disrupt emotional, intellectual, or perceptual functioning. However, those with personality disorders suffer a life that is not positive, proactive, or fulfilling. Not surprisingly, personality disorders are also associated with failures to reach potential.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders DSM-IV-TR - defines personality disorder as an enduring pattern of inner  experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectation of the individual\'s culture, is  pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and  leads to distress or impairment.  10. **ISTINCT PERSONALITY DISORDERS** identified in the DSM-IV-TR:  1. **Antisocial Personality Disorder **- Characterized as lack of regard for the moral or legal standards in the local culture,  marked inability to get along with others or abide by societal rules. Sometimes, they are  often called as psychopaths or sociopaths.  2. **Avoidant Personality Disorder **- There are marked manifestations of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and  extremely sensitive to criticism.  3. **Borderline Personality Disorder **- Lack of one\'s own identity, with rapid changes in mood, intense unstable interpersonal relationships, marked impulsively, instability in affect and in self image.  4. **Dependent Personality Disorder **-The person suffering from Dependent Personality Disorder may feel extreme need  of other people, to a point where the person is unable to make any decisions or take an  independent stand on his or her own. Fear of separation and submissive behavior. There  is marked lack of decisiveness and self-confidence.  5. **Histrionic Personality Disorder **-There is an exaggerated and often inappropriate display of emotional reactions,  approaching theatricality, in everyday behavior. Also, observable is the sudden and  rapidly shifting emotion expressions.  6. **Narcissistic Personality Disorder **The behavior or a fantasy of grandiosity is present, a lack of empathy, a need to be  admired by others, an inability to see the viewpoints of others, and hypersensitive to the  opinions of others. 7. **Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder **- Characterized by perfectionism and inflexibility; preoccupation with uncontrollable patterns of thought and action.  8. **Paranoid Personality Disorder **- Marked distrust of others, including the belief, without reason, that others are  exploiting, harming, or trying to deceive him or her; lack of trust; belief of other\'s  betrayal; belief in hidden meanings, unforgiving and grudge holding.  9. **Schizoid Personality Disorder** - Primarily characterized by a very limited range of emotion, both inexpression of and  experiencing; indifferent to social relationships.  10. **Schizotypal Personality Disorder **- The person shows peculiarities of thinking, odd beliefs, and eccentricities psychic  phenomena and having magical powers of appearance, behavior, interpersonal style,  and thought like believing in psychic phenomena and having magical powers.  Dr. Sam Vaknin (author of Malignant Self Love) -- Narcissism Revisited,  individuals with personality disorders have many things in common:  - Self-centeredness that manifests itself through a me-first, self-preoccupied attitude  - Lack of individual accountability that results in a victim mentality and blaming others,  society and the universe for their problems  - Lack of perspective-taking and empathy  - Manipulative and exploitative behavior  - Unhappiness, suffering from depression and other mood and anxiety disorders  - Vulnerability to other mental disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive tendencies and panic  attacks  - Distorted or superficial understanding of self and other\'s perceptions, being unable to see  his or her objectionable, unacceptable, disagreeable, or self-destructive behaviors or the  issues that may have contributed to the personality disorder  - Socially maladaptive, changing the rules of the game, introducing new variables, or  otherwise influencing the external world to conform to their own needs - No hallucinations, delusions or thought disorders (except for the brief psychotic episodes of  Borderline Personality Disorder)  - It is important to note that some people diagnosed with borderline, antisocial, schizoid, and  obsessive-compulsive personality disorders may be suffering from an underlying biological  disturbance (anatomical, electrical, or neurochemical). A strong genetic link has been found in  antisocial and borderline personality disorders.  **TREATMENT OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS ** Dr. David B. Adams of Atlanta Medical Psychology says that therapists have the most  difficulties with those suffering from personality disorders. They are difficult to please, block  effective communication, avoid development of a trusting relationship, and cannot be relied upon  for accurate history regarding problems or how problems arose (The Psychological According to the Surgeon General, mental disorders are treatable. An armamentarium of  efficacious treatments is available to ameliorate symptoms. Most treatments fall under two general  categories, psychosocial and pharmacological. Moreover, the combination of the two - known as  multimodal therapy - can sometimes be even more effective than each individually.  Based on the DSM-IV-TR\'s definition of personality disorders, it seems that these conditions  are not treatable. However, when individuals choose to be in control of their lives and are committed  to changing their lives, healing is possible. Therapy and medications can help, but it is the  individual\'s decision to take accountability for his or her own life that makes the difference.  To heal, individuals must first have the desire to change in order to breakthrough that enduring pattern of a personality disorder. Individuals need to want to gain insight into and face their inner experience and behavior. These issues may concern severe or repeated trauma during  childhood, such as abuse.  This means that they would be changing their thinking - about themselves, their  relationships, and the world. This also involves changing their behavior, as action reflects the  learned internal changes.  Then, with a support system like therapy, self-help groups, friends, family, and medication,  they can free themselves from their imprisoned life.  **Filipino Traits ** **1. Smooth Interpersonal Relations or SIR** - the facility of getting along well with others  without any conflicts.  In order to acquire this trait, the following are observed: **2. Hiya**. Fr. Jaime Bulatao (1965) defined *hiya* as the painful emotion arising from a  relationship with an authority figure or a society that inhibits self-assertion. This tends  to lead to the uncomfortable feeling that one is in a socially unacceptable position.  **3. Ningas Kugon**. Basically, this refers to the personality of Filipinos of starting something  but eventually would quit in the middle of things. This is evident to people who always  have their New Year\'s Resolution. They are only enthusiastic at the start but later on, it  gradually tones down.  **4. Utang na Loob**. Debt of Gratitude. Reciprocity. This is one of the important values in  the Filipino system. In this sense, "utang na loob\" generally takes its meaning in the  context of a favor given. Such context explicates mainly that the value takes shape in a  reactionary process. This construal of the value presupposes that reciprocity is the core  and basis of "utang na loob". Such understanding leads the Filipino to be passive in  his/her relationships with others.  **5. Bahala Na**. An expression that comes from the Filipino word Bathala which means God.  It may be considered as \"come what may\" attitude wherein initially started. Filipinos  would put the burden to God to take care of what they have started.  **6. Hospitality**. The trait that made every Filipino popular among people in the society. It  is the Filipino\'s unique ways of welcoming visitors to their homes and offering them the  best while at the same time, denying the same to the members of the family.  **7. Amoral Familism**. This is when Filipinos tend to not to see beyond the family circle.  Only those who are considered to be part of the family would get the benefit from the  same family circle member. This trait is always considered to focus on the group centeredness of Filipinos. ***ASSESSING PERSONALITY *** **Pseudo-Scientific Methods of Assessing Personality ** - **Physiognomy** is a **method of assessing personality** based upon the idea that the  assessment of the person\'s outer appearance, primarily the face, may give insights into one\'s  character or personality. - **Phrenology** is a personality  **traits of a person were determined by \"reading\" bumps and fissures in the skull.** It was  developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall (1800). - **Graphology** on the other hand, is the **study and analysis of handwriting** specially in  relation to human psychology. **SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ASSESSING PERSONALITY ** 1. **Objective Test** - It is a written self-rating test or inventory test which is administered in a form of questionnaires and is answered by yes or no or true or false.  2. **Behavioral Method ** 3. **Projective Methods **- Based on the "projective hypothesis,\" which holds that an individual puts structure on an ambiguous situation in a way that is consistent with their own conscious and unconscious needs. It is an indirect method where the person evaluated is talking about something other than him/her self. Projective methods as a tool for assessing personality basically: **TYPES OF PROJECTIVE METHODS ** **Inkblots ** **The Rorschach** - Hermann Rorschach\'s inkblot test are 10 bilaterally symmetrical mirror  image inkblots. It focuses on the content, location, latency to first response; determinants,  popularity, form quality, and organizational ability of the individual. It holds up for convergent  validity but not discriminative or predictive. It needs to be treated as a structured interview and  interpreted by an experienced clinician.   **PICTURES ** **Thematic Apperception Test by Morgan and Murray**. Based on the individual\'s  apperception from apperceive, to perceive in terms of past experience. It was originally used to help  patients in analysis fantasize where 30 pictures + 1 blank are used to stimulate their minds to project their behavior. The individual thus, gives a story from the beginning to end which describes what  people are feeling.  **Other Picture Tests ** - Thompson version  - CAT (animals) and CAT-H (humans)  - Senior AT  - Blacky Picture Test -- dog  - Picture Story Test -- adolescents  - Education Apperception Test - attitudes towards learning  - Michigan Picture Test - children 8-14  - Make-A-Picture Story - make own pictures from figures  - APT - Apperceptive Personality Test - attempt to address shortcomings of TAT and have  objective scoring  **WORDS ** **Word Association Tests**. Francis Galton was the first to use it which is based on reaction  time aside from its content. According to Carl Jung, words that represented potential areas of  conflict would eventually lead to projection of behavior.  Examples of Word Association Tests  - Word Association Test by Gill & Shafer - 60 words- some neutral, some traumatic - Kent-Rosanoff Free Association Test - 100 stimulus words all supposed to be neutral and  common  **Sentence Completion** consists of stems either general or specific which may be theory based  or not.  Examples:  \* Washington University Sentence Completion Test which based on Loevinger\'s theory of  ego development to measure self-concept  \* Rotter Incompléte Sentences Blank, the most popular test with 40 items which can be  utilized to three levels from high school and up. It covers several categories such as  family, attitudes, social and sexual attitudes, general attitudes, and character traits.  **Figure Drawings** have its difficulties with establishment of psychometric properties since  it is hard to do. It is utilized to have not been shown to represent self - but- do represent bodily  concerns. Situation arises because it is affected by the artistic ability of examinee.  Examples of Figure Drawing Tests  - Draw-A-Person Test (Karen Machover). It analyzes characteristics through time taken,  placement of drawing, size, symmetry, facial scoring and use for diagnostic purposes, facial  expressions. Various systems have been devised to try and objectify scoring and use for  diagnostic purposes.  - House-Tree-Person Test (Buck) can be used to identify abused children - Draw-An-Animal  - Kinetic Family Drawing (KFD) is used to gather information about the family system of the  individual.