Research Methods PDF

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention” -Hudson Maxim “Asking questions, trying to figure out what is going on, and/ or why things happen in the way they do, is part of being human (Plays and Atchison,...

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention” -Hudson Maxim “Asking questions, trying to figure out what is going on, and/ or why things happen in the way they do, is part of being human (Plays and Atchison, 2014.) What is research? The term ‘Research’ consists of two words: Research = Re + Search ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something. What is research? ✓finding answers to the questions ✓systematic search for information on a specific topic ✓search for knowledge ✓searching new and original information and ideas about the world we live in ✓systematic search for truth ✓Research seeks the answer to specific questions which have not been answered so far, and the answers depend upon human efforts. ✓Research is the process of arriving at a dependable solution to a problem through the planned and systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. Which of these can be classified as research? Samad prepared a paper on “computer usage in secondary schools” after reviewing the literature on the subject in his university library. Manoj says that he has researched and completed a document which gives information about the age of his students, their results, their parents income and distance of their schools from the District Office. Kim participated in a workshop on curriculum development and prepared what he calls, a report on the curriculum for Engineers. Consider the following case: A general manager of a car producing company was concerned with the complaints received from the car users that the car they produce have some problems with sound at the dash board and the rear passenger seat after few thousand kilometers of driving. He obtained information from the company workers to identify the various factors influencing the problem. He then formulated the problem and generated guesses (hypotheses). He constructed a checklist and obtained requisite information from a representative sample of cars. He analyzed the collected data, interpreted the results in the light of his hypotheses and reached conclusions. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits 2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work 4. Desire to be of service to society 5. Desire to get respectability WHERE DO IDEAS COME FROM IN RESEARCH? Research Methods/ Methodology Systematic process of enquiry It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done. It not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. 1. Choose a topic. 2. Review the literature (past research). 3. Formulate the problem (find the gap in past research). 4. Develop a research question. 5. Choose and organize the research design. 6. Gather the data. 7. Analyze the data. 8. Interpret the data. 9. Communicate the findings.  CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH  Purpose clearly defined.  Research process detailed.  Research design thoroughly planned.  High ethical standards applied.  Limitations frankly revealed.  Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.  Findings presented clearly.  Conclusions justified.  Researcher’s experience reflected.  PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH Uncontrollable variables Human tendencies Time and money Insufficient interaction between university research departments and business establishments/ institutions Lack of confidence on the part of institutions to give information Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives : 1. applications of the findings of the research study; 2. objectives of the study; 3. mode of enquiry used in conducting the study. 1. Based on pplications of the findings of the research study; Basic/Pure/ Fundamental Research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. such work often involves the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract and specialised concepts. driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question. main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as: How did the universe begin? How did we evolve? Hows and whys of human behaviour/ human society? What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly? How alcohol consumption impacts the brain? To discover the components making up human DNA A study looking to see if gender stereotypes lead to depression 1. Based on pplications of the findings of the research study; Applied Research Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to: improve agricultural crop production treat or cure a specific disease improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation a study that helps policy makers change an existing policy or create a new one GENETICS OF PLANTS → TRANSGENIC PLANTS → BT COTTON TRANSGENIC CROP → IMPROVEMENT FOR FARMERS/ AGRICULTURE SECTOR → IMPROVED ECONOMY Basic research is curiosity-driven and asks fundamental questions (How? What? Why?). The purpose of basic research is to understand how nature works. Translational research is more focused and applies information from basic research to ask how scientists can use this knowledge to improve human health/ life. It takes basic facts of how life works and translates them for use in potential therapeutics. Clinical research takes the successes of translational research and tests whether they are safe and effective in treating disease in human clinical trials. Types of research: objectives perspective descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory Descriptive research/ observational/ inductive or fishing expedition Sometimes the goal of research is to describe or define a particular phenomenon. Descriptive research: involves surveys and fact-finding enquiries also called as Ex post facto research no control over the variables, one can only report what has happened or what is happening. include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. Descriptive research vs hypothesis-driven research: information is collected without a particular question in mind vs designed to test a specific explanation for a phenomenon Researchers favor hypothesis-driven research over descriptive research as it is explanatory or provides insights into causation. many esteemed scientific disciplines, such as astronomy, archaeology, and paleontology, are almost entirely descriptive sciences Newton's laws of motion can be considered descriptive, and there is nothing mechanistic about the gravitational constant.  Correlation research to discover or to establish a relationship/ association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product? What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack? What is the relationship between fertility and mortality? What is the relationship between technology and unemployment? What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home environment on educational achievement? 1. Descriptive The purpose of the study is to describe what is going on or what exists. For example, differences in rates of illness or the proportion of outpatients sampled with various opinions about the level of service provided. Both quantitative and qualitative research methods can be applied to answer descriptive questions. 2. Relational This is when a study looks at the relationship between two or more variables, e.g. the proportion of men and women with negative attitudes on the level of service provision, or the proportion of women with eating disorders compared to men. In these examples, the relationship between gender and negative attitudes and eating disorders are respectively being examined. Only quantitative or fixed research design can answer these types of questions. 3. Causal This is when a study is designed to examine whether one or more variables significantly causes or affects one or more outcome variables. For example, does Exploratory research/ feasibility study or pilot study Researchers conducting exploratory research are typically at the early stages of examining their topics. Exploratory research/ feasibility study or pilot study Explanatory research It seeks to answer “why” questions. researcher tries to identify the causes and effects of whatever phenomenon is being studied. Eg: An explanatory study of college students’ addictions to their electronic gadgets, for example, might aim to understand why students become addicted. Does it have anything to do with their family histories? Does it have anything to do with their other extracurricular hobbies and activities? Does it have anything to do with the people with whom they spend their time? Types of research: mode of enquiry perspective the structured approach/ quantitative research; the unstructured/ qulaitative approach. Structured approach/ quantitative research everything that forms the research process – objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents – is predetermined. requires the need to know exactly what to do before collecting and analysing the data. Has ‘fixed research designs’. reliance on statistical analysis and generalizations more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon Unstructured approach/ qualitative research predominantly used to explore its nature, in other words, variation/diversity per se in a phenomenon, issue, problem or attitude towards an issue. help understand social phenomena in a natural, rather than an experimental, setting with emphasis on the meanings, experiences and views of the participants to determine ‘why’, rather than ‘how many’ flexible designs which are interpretative, using ethnographic or qualitative approaches and with less pre-specification as to what information is required Research design evolves and develops as the research continues. For example: A researcher wants to find out how many households use solar energy, and how many people have faced issues with it, a -------------------- approach to inquiry is required. If the researcher wants different perspectives of using solar energy, the problems experienced by people using it, ----------------inquiries are appropriate. Researcher A: Collecting and analyzing “facts” related to the success of women in private sector businesses. For him, reality is represented by tangible things such as job position, promotions, compensation, etc. These objects have a separate existence from him and for that reason some researchers argue that the collection of such data is less open to bias and is therefore more objective. Researcher B: interested in collecting and analyzing data about “feelings” and “attitudes” of the male public health workers toward their female managers. While some researchers might argue that feelings and attitudes are subjective and not measurable, human feelings can and are frequently measured. Structured data: quantitative data in the form of numbers, values Unstructured data: qualitative data in the form of text files, audio files and video files Conceptual vs. Empirical Research Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones Empirical research is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. It is also called as experimental type of research. Ecofeminism Theory/ Deep Ecology Living Interconnections with Animals and Nature Connection Between Women and Animals Nature Is A Feminist Issue Out of Africa Theory: Emperical Evidences