Iran Case Study Notes PDF

Why Study This Case? ○ Associated with what we think of Islamism or Islamic fundamentalism Fundamentalism - a view of religion as absolute and inerrant that should be legally enforced by making faith the sovereign authority ○ Revolution from authoritarianism to theocracy in 1979 Laws and Politics flow straight from the Koran, the main spiritual text of Islam ○ Atypical and unrepresentative of the politics of Islam or the Middle East Iran Facts ○ The main language is Farsi Language closer to English and other European languages ○ Shiism Minority form of Islam that differs from the rest of Islam in its belief regarding the rightful heir of the prophet Muhammad Major Geographic and Demographic Features ○ Neighbors of Iran Afghanistan, Pakistan, and several states that were once a part of the Soviet Union ○ Population 80 Million Young in comparison to Europe and North America ○ Demography The youth Pose a threat to the current government as they were the ones who protested in the contested presidential election of 2009 Diverse population 60% of the population is Persian Nearly 20% is Azeri Smaller Ethnic groups are Kurds, Arabs, and Baluchis ○ Fourth largest reserves of oil in the world Historical Development of the State ○ The Persian Legacy and the Islamic Empire The Achaemenid Empire Wealthy, technical sophistication, and relative political and religious tolerance, it is an important symbol of Iranian might that still resonates with Iranians today Persia changed in the seventh century when it was introduced to Islam Successors of Muhammad began to spread the faith through military conquest under the Umayyad Dynasty ○ Dynastic Rule and the Adoption of Shiism Two long-standing Iranian dynasties Safavids (1502 - 1736) ○ The country adopted Shiism during this time ○ Shiism differs from Sunni Islam by arguing that god has entrusted leadership within the Islamic Community to the family and bloodline of the prophet Muhammad Shia believes the imams are the true leaders of the faith Mahdi are imams or “guided ones” ○ Ashura The most important Shia religious holiday commemorates Hussein’s death ○ Shiism is indirectly involved in politics The Safavids cultivated within Shiism’s religious leaders a higher clergy, who came to be known as ayatollahs Qajars (1794 - 1925) ○ Failed Reforms and the Erosion of Sovereignty Constitutional Revolution Religious leaders, intellectuals, and members of the merchant class protested in favor of limitations on the powers of the Qajar Monarchy ○ This resulted in an elected assembly that drew up the country’s first constitution and legislative body, known as the Majlis Modern Iran's history is tightly connected to British imperialism Reza Khan Military Officer who came to power in 1921 through a military coup Consolidation of Power under the Pahlavi Dynasty Reza Shah Pahlavi was the monarch of Iran from 1925 to 1941. Reza Khan was appointed shah by the Majlis in 1925. Reza Shah Pahlavi initiated dramatic Westernization and state building. He reformed the bureaucracy, instituted education at all levels, developed road and rail systems, and established state-owned businesses. He also abolished the aristocracy and centralized the military, extending state control. He helped foster a strong sense of national identity, downplayed national Arab influences, renamed the country Iran, and gave women access to education. Crisis Reemerges Under Reza Shah’s Rule Modernization occurred at the expense of both democratization and traditional religious institutions. Democratic institutions, such as the press and the Majlis, were curtailed, and political opponents were jailed, exiled, or killed. Religious leaders were also repressed. World War II brought Iran back into international conflict and crisis. Iran's friendly relations with Germany led to a joint invasion by the UK and Russia. Reza Shah was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was the monarch of Iran from 1941 to 1979. The Nationalist Challenge under Mosaddeq Republicanism and religious activity began to reassert themselves. This marked a short period of democratic rule. The National Front, a political party in Iran following World War II, opposed the monarchy and favored greater Iranian control over natural resources. Mohammad Mosaddeq, the National Front prime minister, nationalized the oil industry in pursuit of national sovereignty. Mosaddeq was deposed in 1953 by Operation Ajax and kept under house arrest until his death in 1967....and the U.S. Response The British responded to the nationalization of the oil industry by halting all oil production in Iran. Mosaddeq turned to the Marxist Tudeh Party to maintain power. The U.S. feared Iran was headed for a Communist takeover. Operation Ajax was a United States and United Kingdom backed overthrow of Iranian prime minister Mosaddeq in 1953. The coup was carried out with the shah’s support. The National Front party was outlawed. The Shah consolidated his power by creating the SAVAK, the secret police of prerevolutionary Iran. Authoritarianism and Modernization during the White Revolution The White Revolution was a series of reforms enacted by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, beginning in 1963, to rapidly modernize and Westernize Iran. The reforms included land reform, privatization of state-run industries, a literacy campaign, and the enfranchisement of women. Conservative Resistance to the White Revolution Some reforms were strongly opposed by religious leaders. This opposition led to protests that were violently repressed. Ayatollah Khomeini was a rising leader in this protest movement. Khomeini was forced into exile but continued to critique the government from abroad. Despite the critics, the shah continued to rule without challenge for another 15 years, and rapid modernization continued. Growing economic inequality and insecurity also increased. Opposition to the Shah Tensions emerged among the shah, Ayatollah Khomeini, and the U.S.. In 1977-78, U.S. President Jimmy Carter emphasized human rights and criticized the shah for repressive practices. Khomeini argued that Islamic government should be constructed around velayat-e faqih, not monarchic rule. Velayat-e faqih is rule by Islamic jurists and is also the Islamic Republic’s political system, which places power in the hands of clerics whose purpose is to guide people to God (Allah). The Iranian Revolution Public protests broke out in 1978. Three major events turned protest into revolution: a fire at Cinema Rex (started by protest radicals but blamed on the government), the shah declared martial law (which resulted in more violence and repression), and the shah asked Iraq to exile Khomeini to France (which only improved Khomeini's ability to spread his message). As the crisis worsened, military units began to defect. The shah fled the country and was replaced by a provisional government. Khomeini Comes Home An image shows Khomeini arriving by airplane. The Consolidation of an Islamic Republic Khomeini outmaneuvered the secular political government. He gained control of the government, oversaw the drafting of a new constitution, and served as faqih until his death in 1989. The Islamic Republic of Iran is the name for post-revolutionary Iran. The Islamic Republic’s Violent Birth The new government suppressed all opposition and executed thousands in the name of "revolutionary justice". Student radicals seized the U.S. embassy and held staff hostage. The crisis transformed Iran’s relationship with the international community. The Iran-Iraq War, a conflict between the two countries from 1980 to 1988, started by Iraq and led by Saddam Hussein, caused widespread destruction on both sides. Political Regime This slide introduces the topic of the political regime of Iran. Major Political Features of Iran Iran has a semi-presidential theocracy. The legislative body is the Majlis, which is a lower house; there is no upper house. The country has a unitary division of power. The main geographic subunits are the Ostan (provinces). The electoral system for the lower house consists of single-member and multimember districts with plurality. The chief judicial body is the Supreme Court. The Constitution The constitution is a product of the 1979 revolution and was revised in 1989. The constitution states that God is sovereign over the Iranian people and state. All laws must be based on Islamic criteria, known as Sharia, or religious law of Islam. The constitution also embodies strong republican elements since the shah's overthrow was primarily a revolution of the people. The result is ongoing tensions between republicanism and theocracy. The Supreme Leader The Supreme Leader is the chief spiritual and political leader of Iran who functions as the powerful head of state. The position was created for Khomeini after the revolution to place a senior cleric at the helm of Iranian politics. The Supreme Leader serves for life, but can be removed from power in theory. The Supreme Leader is the dominant executive and has numerous powers derived from institutionalized practices. The Powers of the Supreme Leader The Supreme Leader is the commander in chief of the armed forces. The Supreme Leader controls the Guardian Council, which vets presidential and legislative candidates. The Supreme Leader appoints the chief justice and controls state-owned economic assets. A diagram illustrates the structure of the Iranian government. Choosing a Supreme Leader There were questions of succession following Khomeini’s death. Few ayatollahs accepted Khomeini's view of the velayat-e faqih. The heir apparent was arrested for criticizing the regime. The chosen successor and current leader is Ali Khamenei, who is not an ayatollah and was chosen because he was seen as unthreatening. Nonetheless, Khamenei has consolidated his power since taking office. In theory, the Assembly of Experts is an elected body that chooses the Supreme Leader, but in practice the Guardian Council vets assembly candidates. The President The President of Iran is the head of government, not the head of state. The president is directly elected and can serve up to two four-year terms. The President's powers include drafting the state budget, initiating legislation, and selecting the cabinet. The president lacks veto power over legislation. The president is technically in charge of foreign policy, but does not control the military. The Legislature The Majlis is a unicameral body with 290 members, who are directly elected for four-year terms. There is some representation for minority communities. The Majlis has some limited authority with powers that include initiating and passing legislation, overseeing the budget, and approving cabinet members. The Majlis can remove cabinet members with votes of no confidence, but not the president or supreme leader. The Majlis is an important instrument of local politics. Limitations on the Majlis's Power Laws initiated by the Majlis can be struck down if they contradict "divine law". Two institutions limit the power of the Majlis: the Guardian Council, which vets candidates for office and can overturn legislation, and the Expediency Council, which mediates between the Majlis and the Guardian Council over legislative disputes. The Expediency Council was formerly headed by Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, president of Iran from 1989 to 1997. The Judiciary The legal system is derived from religious law (Sharia). Islamic legal theory is contradictory to the “rule of law” seen in liberal democracies because Allah is sovereign and the ultimate judge. Only clerics may serve as judges. The apex of the judicial system is the chief justice, who manages judicial institutions and oversees the appointment and removal of judges. The chief justice is appointed by the supreme leader for a five-year term. Below the chief justice is the Supreme Court, which serves as the highest court of appeal. Iran’s Dysfunctional Judiciary Judges, who are clerics, are given considerable independence to interpret the law, resulting in contradictory opinions across the courts. In addition to civil and criminal courts, Iran has revolutionary courts that emerged out of political trials following the revolution. Revolutionary courts address national security cases and are used against the regime's opponents. Iran executes more people than any other nation besides China. Electoral System Iran has some elements of democratic participation, with direct elections for the Majlis, Assembly of Experts, and presidency. Voter turnout is decreasing, especially since 2017. Public choice is constrained because the Guardian Council oversees all elections and vets all candidates. The Guardian Council can reject any candidate who wants to run for office. In the 2017 presidential election, the Guardian Council blocked former president Ahmadinejad. Reform candidates in the past sometimes gained office, but there is currently a hardline crackdown. The Offices and their Election Rules The Majlis has 290 members and is a combination of single-member and multi-member districts. In a single-member district (SMD), the most votes wins, with a runoff if no one is above 25%. In multi-member districts (MMD), voters cast votes for each seat, with a similar runoff rule as SMD. For the Assembly of Experts, the SMD plurality is used with no runoff and most votes wins. The presidency uses a two-round runoff, unless the top vote-getter won an outright majority in the first round (as Rouhani did in 2013 and 2017). Local Government The country is divided into 31 ostan (provinces) with limited authority. While the 1979 revolution claimed the need for local government, the new regime rejected any moves toward devolution. Reforms in 1997 began to decentralize power, and local councils were created in 1999, although all candidates are vetted by the Majlis. Local councils have the power to manage local politics and indirectly elect mayors. Council members are directly elected by voters. The 2021 elections had the lowest voter turnout ever. Other Institutions: The Revolutionary Guard, Quds and the Basij The Revolutionary Guard is a paramilitary force charged with defending the regime from domestic and internal enemies. It is under the control of the supreme leader and allies. The Revolutionary Guard is a major player in domestic and international affairs and is independent of Iran's Armed Forces. It is factionalized by competing political and economic interests. The Basij is a "people's militia" that is now being used to suppress current protesters. The Basij is under the authority of the Revolutionary Guard and is similar to a National Guard. Members come mostly from poorer backgrounds and membership provides access to education and other benefits. The Power of the Revolutionary Guard The Revolutionary Guard has its own ministry, army, navy, air force, and a role in the nuclear program. It is active in regional conflicts, especially in Syria and Lebanon. The Revolutionary Guard is associated with past terrorist acts and possesses significant economic assets. The Revolutionary Guard is highly involved with national economic development in sectors like construction, banking, and telecommunications. It controls the Basij (no longer militarily significant but useful for enforcing codes of public conduct and breaking up demonstrations). President Raisi is closely associated with the Revolutionary Guards. Political Conflict and Competition This slide introduces the topic of political conflict and competition within Iran. The Confusing Nature of Iran’s Political Competition Political differences do not fit neatly into familiar categories. There are no institutionalized political parties. Politics is instead dominated by loosely organized groups that continuously vie for power. The struggle appears democratic but is usually between competing elites within the regime. Politics is factionalized and clientelist. How the Government Shaped the Party System Factionalization was not inevitable. A few parties emerged in post-revolutionary Iran to challenge Khomeini’s theocracy, but the government increasingly repressed opposition groups. In the 1984 elections, all parties besides the Islamic Republican Party were banned. In 1987, the Islamic Republican Party itself was eliminated, reflecting the Supreme Leader’s fear of civil society. Challenges of Political Reform After 1987, all debate in the Majlis was restricted to economics. In the 1990s, the free-market faction supported the candidacy of pro-reform president Mohammad Khatami. Khatami won the 1997 and 2000 presidential elections. This reform period saw a dramatic diversification in political views and organizations. The Second Khordad Front was a reformist alliance that emerged in Iran to contest the 2000 Majlis elections. The Second Khordad Front won decisively and did so again in 2001, which was hopeful for reform. Conservatives Push Back Soon afterward, a wave of repression was directed against reformists. Journalists and pro-democracy activists were arrested and assassinated. In the 2004 election, the Guardian Council banned many Khordad candidates. Reformists were pushed into a minority in the Majlis until the 2016 election following Rouhani's victory. This highlights the institutional weakness of the presidency and the Majlis in contrast to the Guardian Council, the Expediency Council, and the Revolutionary Guard, which remained packed with hard-line conservatives. The Ahmadinejad Presidency In the 2005 presidential election, Tehran mayor Mahmoud Ahmadinejad defeated Rafsanjani. Ahmadinejad won by benefiting from the absence of pro-reform voters, receiving support from the poor, more conservative voters, and being supported by the Revolutionary Guard and Basij. The Ahmadinejad presidency was characterized by a populist approach, emphasizing public programs aimed at the poor, being more openly confrontational with the U.S., and the development of nuclear technology. The 2009 Election and the “Green Wave” In 2009, Ahmadinejad ran against several rivals, including former prime minister (pro-reform) Mousavi. It was widely expected that Ahmadinejad and Mousavi would compete in a runoff. Instead, the government claimed Ahmadinejad won over 60 percent of the vote. This announcement sparked mass demonstrations and a harsh crackdown from the government. Ahmadinejad’s reelection was a victory for conservatives, but public demonstrations of hostility toward him hurt him politically. Rouhani’s Surprising Victory in 2013 Most expected the next president would be someone close to the supreme leader. The Guardian Council weeded out most reform and moderate candidates. The supreme leader also communicated his preferred candidate. Instead, Hassan Rouhani won the 2013 presidential election. Successes and Failures of the Rouhani Presidency The successes of the Rouhani presidency included improved foreign relations, including speaking directly with U.S. President Obama in 2013 and stepping away from Ahmadinejad’s anti-Israel stance. In 2015, Rouhani negotiated a new nuclear deal, the JCPOA, and sanctions were lifted. The result was that Iran's international relations and its economy improved. The failures of the Rouhani presidency included more problems after his reelection in 2017, reforms being halted by international and domestic forces suspicious of change, the U.S. withdrawal from the nuclear deal in 2018 halting economic improvements and sanctions being reimposed, and the arrest of reformers and civil society activists. Civil Society Iran’s recent historical patterns include a rise of civil society when the state is weak (after the death of Khomeini) and then crackdowns as the government regains control. With the Islamic Republic's creation, civic organizations were absorbed into the state or outlawed. The move was consistent with the theocracy's interpretation of the concept of ummah, which means "community" and is meant to refer to the nation of Islamic communities everywhere, and part of Khomeini's goal to impose his theocratic views across the Middle East. Plurality and autonomy are seen as running counter to religious rule. The Government Attacks Civil Society A crackdown led by Supreme Leader Khamenei against society opening occurred, with the press condemned as the "base of the enemy". Publications were closed or physically attacked, and a 2000 law restricted media operations; journalists were arrested or killed. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) also came under attack, and repression intensified following the 2009 and 2013 presidential elections. Many activists and those close to President Rouhani were arrested on charges of espionage and "propaganda against the state". The Internet and Civil Society in Iran Iran was an internet pioneer in the Middle East, which is a reflection of its excellent educational system. As the government cracked down on traditional media, critics turned to the internet. Alternative views spread through blogs, text messaging, and social media, which has played some role in galvanizing public protest. However, the Iranian internet is the most restricted in the world, with arbitrary arrests for internet activism or posting "immoral" content and limits on access to sites like Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. Society This slide introduces the topic of society in Iran. Iran’s Unique National Identity Iran is distinct from other Islamic states in the Middle East because it has a majority Shia population and is majority ethnically Iranian. As a result, Iranian nationalism also differs and emphasizes the historic struggle between Persians and Arabs. As the legitimacy of the Islamic regime has declined, Iranian nationalism has emphasized pre-Islamic identity. Young people especially embrace holidays, practices, and symbols of the Achaemenid Empire and Zoroastrianism. Iran's Ethnic Groups A map shows the distribution of ethnic groups in Iran. Iran’s Ethnic Diversity Several minorities have ethnic ties to regions or countries outside of Iran. Azeris are Shia but Turkic speakers concentrated in the north; there are tensions surrounding the independence of Azerbaijan after the USSR. They are approximately 16% of the population. Kurds live in the northwest and have a past history of armed revolt and a recent history of peaceful and violent activism. They comprise 10% of the population and have an autonomous region inside Iraq. Other groups, like the Baluchis near the Pakistani border and Arabs along the Gulf, have complained of discrimination with protests and sporadic acts of violence. Ethnic Groups and Religions Pie charts display the distribution of ethnic groups and religions in Iran. The majority ethnic group is Persian at 61% and the majority religion is Muslim at 99.4%, which includes Shia and Sunni Muslims. Political Centralization and Ethnic Conflict Iran's highly centralized system may be creating ever greater tensions due to the lack of devolution or meaningful local governments despite years of promises. Non-Persians have few opportunities for education or access to media in their native language. Most discriminated against are combined religious and ethnic minorities and Sunnis hold few government positions. Past presidents have acknowledged these concerns, but little has changed since 1979, except that the Kurds are now better armed and more organized, especially since the rise of ISIS in Syria and Iraq. Ideology and Political Culture There are major divisions over the relationship between religion and the state. There are no real political ideologies. Quietists (reformists) reject theocracy and the direct role of religion in the state and view politics as a corrupting influence. They favor a reduced/modified role for Islam in politics and are in favor of democratic reform. Principalists (conservatives) oppose liberalization and political reform, support velayat-e faqih, and oppose democratization. Both groups enjoy support from various high-ranking ayatollahs but principalists are backed by the Revolutionary Guard. A pie chart shows that 40% of Iranians believe that religious figures should have a large influence on political matters, while 11% think that they should have no influence at all. A diagram illustrates the relationships between the branches of the Iranian government. Divisions Over the Economy There are divisions over the relationship between the state and the market which tends to align with the quietist vs. principalist divide. Reformers/quietists favor economic liberalization and better relations with the international community. Conservatives like Khamenei are skeptical of reforms and want to maintain a nationalist economy, fearing Western values and Western economic models. Iranians' Complex Views of the United States A poll from IranPoll and the Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland from 2016-2019 shows that when asked about their views on the United States: ○ 3.4% had a very favorable view, 9.9% a somewhat favorable view, 12.8% a somewhat unfavorable view, 73% a very unfavorable view and 0.9% did not know or had no answer. ○ When asked about their views on the U.S. government, 1.7% had a very favorable view, 8.1% a somewhat favorable view, 14.5% a somewhat unfavorable view, 73.6% a very unfavorable view, and 2.1% did not know or had no answer. ○ When asked about their views on the American people, 12.5% had a very favorable view, 40.3% a somewhat favorable view, 17.1% a somewhat unfavorable view, 26.2% a very unfavorable view, and 3.9% did not know or had no answer. Is Coexistence Possible? A poll from IranPoll and the Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland from 2016-2019 shows the following results when asked "Can there be common ground for peaceful coexistence between Islamic and Western religious and social traditions?" ○ In July 2014, 30% thought conflict was inevitable, and 58% thought common ground was possible. ○ In May 2015, 35% thought conflict was inevitable, and 55% thought common ground was possible. ○ In August 2015, 30% thought conflict was inevitable, and 59% thought common ground was possible. ○ In January 2016, 29% thought conflict was inevitable, and 58% thought common ground was possible. ○ In June 2016, 30% thought conflict was inevitable, and 59% thought common ground was possible. ○ In December 2016, 29% thought conflict was inevitable, and 61% thought common ground was possible. ○ In January 2018, 35% thought conflict was inevitable, and 59% thought common ground was possible. ○ In December 2018, 30% thought conflict was inevitable, and 61% thought common ground was possible. Political Economy The Pahlavi dynasty pursued top-down industrialization and mercantilism to catch up to the West, combining oil exports with Western imports. In a few decades, Iran made the jump from an isolated agrarian country to a modern, urban society, with 50% of the population living in urban areas in just 20 years. The social upheaval that accompanied this rapid growth and societal changes triggered a conservative (religious) backlash and the 1979 Islamic revolution. Iran’s Struggle with the Oil Resource Curse Oil money increases political corruption. Since oil revenues are a major source of state revenues, the public is not taxed, and their demands are not of concern to those in power. An oil-dominated economy tends to have a weak private sector, and most women are employed in the private sector. Fewer jobs mean women lack economic resources to demand better political rights. Authoritarianism and War Centralizes Economic Power Iran's constitution states that the "economy is a means, not an end". Private industry assets, especially oil, became state-owned. Bonyads are parastatal charitable foundations formed out of assets nationalized after the Iranian Revolution. The Revolutionary Guard is a very influential bonyad. The intended goals of economic nationalization were to increase state assets and help the disadvantaged and to promote economic independence and sovereignty. Consequences of Iran's Economic Model Overall, there has been very poor economic performance since the 1979 revolution. U.S.-led international sanctions have driven away most investment, making it difficult to sell oil in international markets. The Iran-Iraq War did long-term damage by destroying key infrastructure, depleting the treasury, and resulting in the huge loss of a generation of young men. Unemployment is high, and inflation has eroded pensions and savings. Youth, women, and those with higher education are the hardest hit. This has led to high rates of "brain drain," delayed marriage, low birth rates, and a black market economy. Foreign Relations and the World Iran sees itself as the vanguard of the Islamic political movement and has sought to expand this vision throughout the region. Islamism has not been embraced by other Muslim countries, leading Iran to support Shia terrorist organizations instead. This helps explain Iran’s behavior during the Iran-Iraq War, such as its refusal to accept a ceasefire, and its support for Lebanon’s Hezbollah and Hamas and Islamic Jihad in Palestine. Major obstacles preventing Iran from spreading political Islam include that most Muslims are Sunni and view Shiism as an incorrect interpretation of the faith, that Iranians are not Arabs, and that the Iran-Iraq war created more opposition to Iran than support. Relations with the West have oscillated between reconciliation and conflict. Some opportunities for re-engagement include Khatami’s attempts to open dialogue in the 1990s and the 2001 terrorist attacks where Iran and the U.S. both viewed Afghanistan’s Taliban and Iraq’s Saddam Hussein as enemies. The U.S. War on Terror made friends out of former enemies. Current Issues in Iran Both peaceful nuclear energy and nuclear weapons programs require enriching uranium atoms. Nuclear energy enriches uranium to about 20%, while weapons-grade uranium requires enrichment to around 90%. In the early 1990s, Iran restarted its nuclear program with aid from Pakistan and North Korea, which generated international concern and increasingly restrictive sanctions. JCPOA: An Attempt to Resolve this Dispute The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was finalized in 2015 with major parties including Iran, the U.S., the UK, France, Germany, China, and Russia. Iran agreed to temporarily halt enrichment and open nuclear facilities to outside inspection. Other countries agreed to ease economic sanctions. In 2018, Trump unilaterally pulled the U.S. out of the deal despite the IAEA confirming that Iran was abiding by the agreement. Relations between the U.S. and Iran continue to worsen. Iranian Public Perceptions of the Nuclear Deal A poll from IranPoll and the Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland from 2019 showed that when asked about the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA): ○ 21% agreed with the statement that “based on the JCPOA experience, making concessions is worthwhile”. ○ 72% agreed with the statement that “based on the JCPOA experience, making concessions is not worthwhile”. ○ 7% responded “other/not sure”.

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