Iranian History Quiz: Reza Shah to Modern Iran

Why Study This Case?

• Associated with the idea of Islamism or Islamic fundamentalism
• Fundamentalism views religion as absolute and inerrant, insisting on legal enforcement.
• Revolution from authoritarianism to theocracy (1979)
• Rules and laws directly derived from the Koran (Islam's main holy book)
• Not typical of Islamic politics or Middle Eastern politics.
• The main language of Iran is Farsi.
• Language is similar to other English and European languages.
• Shiism is a minority form of Islam, disagreeing with mainstream Islam on religious succession.

Major Geographic and Demographic Features

• Neighbouring countries include Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of the former Soviet Union.
• Population of approximately 80 million.
• Younger population compared to Europe and North America.
• Population is diverse: 60% are Persian, 20% are Azeri; other ethnic groups include Kurds, Arabs, and Baluchis.
• Iran possesses the world's fourth largest oil reserves.

Historical Development of the State

• Key empires include: Achaemenid Empire (wealthy, sophisticated, relatively tolerant society).
• Cultural and political tolerance within the Persian empire; major symbol of Iranian pride.
• Persia's conversion to Islam in the 7th century under the Umayyad Dynasty influenced by military conquest.
• Dynastic rule and the adoption of Shiism.

Crisis Reemerges Under Reza Shah's Rule

• Modernization came at the cost of democratization, suppression of democratic institutions and journalists.
• Political opponents faced imprisonment, exile, or execution.
• Religious leaders also faced repression.
• Involvement in World War II.
• Forced abdication of Reza Shah in 1941 in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

The Nationalist Challenge under Mosaddeq

• Republicanism and religious activity emerged.
• Political party (National Front) opposed monarchy and favoured greater Iranian control over natural resources by nationalizing oil.
• Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddeq nationalized Iran's oil industry.
• Overthrow of Mosaddeq in 1953 (Operation Ajax) led to his imprisonment and subsequent death, largely driven and supported by the United States and United Kingdom.

Authoritarianism and Modernization During the White Revolution

• Reform efforts implemented by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi starting in 1963, aimed at modernizing the country.
• Reforms included land reform, privatization of state-owned industries, literacy campaigns, and women's rights.

Conservative Resistance to the White Revolution

• Religious leaders opposed many reforms and resulted in violent protests.
• Rise of Ayatollah Khomeini who criticized the government from abroad and became a key figure in the opposition.
• Economic inequality and insecurity fueled the growing opposition.
• Tensions between the Shah, Ayatollah Khomeini, and US. (1977-78)
• US President Carter criticized the shah's repressive practices.
• Khomeini called for an Islamic theocracy led by religious leaders.

The Iranian Revolution

• Public protests began in 1978, primarily triggered by a fire at the Cinema Rex (blamed on the government).
• Martial law declaration further escalating tensions.
• The shah exiled Khomeini, prompting further public protests and growing support for a theocracy.
• Defection of military units to the revolution.
• Shah's departure and establishment of a provisional government.
• Khomeini's return and taking power.

The Islamic Republic's Violent Birth

• The new government repressed opposition violently, carrying out executions in the name of “revolutionary justice.”
• Seizure of the US embassy by student radicals (hostage crisis) created further international tension.
• Iran-Iraq War from 1980 to 1988.

Major Political Features of Iran

• Semi-presidential theocracy
• Unicameral Legislature (Majlis)
• Unitary system of government.
• Electoral system (single & multi-member districts within provinces)
• The Supreme Court as the chief judicial body.

The Constitution

• Product of the 1979 revolution (revised in 1989)
• God as sovereign over Iran
• Law based on Islamic principles (Sharia)
• Republican elements alongside theocracy.
• Continuing tensions between republicanism and theocracy.

The Supreme Leader

• Spiritual and political leader (chief cleric)
• Powerful position in state affairs.
• Lifetime appointment.
• Controls the Guardian Council and armed forces.

The President

• Elected position
• Head of government
• Limited power, in theory, in relation to the Supreme Leader.
• Can draft budgets, initiate legislation and select cabinet.

The Legislature (Majlis)

• Directly elected members (290 members) for four-year terms.
• Representation for minority groups.
• Initiate and pass legislation; oversee the budget; and approve cabinet members.
• Can remove cabinet members, but not President or Supreme Leader.

Limitations on the Majlis' Power

• Laws cannot contradict “divine law”
• Guardian Council and the Expediency Council can overturn legislation.

The Judiciary

• Legal system based on religious law (Sharia)
• Clerics serve as judges
• Supreme Leader appoints the chief justice, who manages judicial institutions.
• Supreme Court as the highest court of appeal.

Iran's Dysfunctional Judiciary

• Considerable independence of judges, leading to inconsistent interpretations of the law.
• Revolutionary courts established after revolution to deal with political issues.
• Iran has a significant number of executions, exceeding most nations.

Electoral System

• Direct elections for Majlis, Assembly of Experts, and presidency.
• Voter turnout is decreasing
• Guardian Council vets candidates and controls elections.

The Offices and Their Election Rules

• Majlis (290 members), with single and multi-member districts.

Local Government

• Divided into 31 provinces.
• Rejected devolution after 1979 revolution, favoring centralization
• Created local councils, with members directly elected by voters in certain reforms.
• 2021 elections experienced low turnout.

Other Institutions: The Revolutionary Guard, Quds, and the Basij

• Paramilitary force defending the regime.
• Significant influence in domestic and international affairs.
• Independent of Iran's armed forces.
• Competing political and economic interests.
• Basij is a "people's militia", partly under the authority of the Revolutionary Guard.

Political Conflict and Competition

• Political differences do not neatly fit familiar categories.
• No institutionalized political parties exist.
• Dominated by loosely organized groups.
• Continuous struggle for power, often between competing elites within the system.

How the Government Shaped the Party System

• Increased suppression of opposition and parties after the revolution.
• Banning of parties and suppression of groups other than the dominant Islamic Republican party.
• Fear of civil society and opposition.

Challenges of Political Reform

• Debate restricted to economic concerns, after 1987.
• Rise of reformers, like former president Mohammad Khatami (1997-2000).
• Creation of the Second Khordad Front.

The Ahmadinejad Presidency

• Popular appeal in the 2005 elections.
• Emphasis on public programs, particularly for the poor.
• Confrontational stance against foreign powers, focusing on the U.S.
• Development of a nuclear technology program.

The 2009 Election and the "Green Wave"

• contested election, with significant protests after allegations of fraud.
• Harsh crackdown by the government.

Rouhani's Surprising Victory in 2013

• Unexpected victory, not allied with the Supreme Leader.
• Candidate supported by the Guardian Council and the supreme leader.

Successes and Failures of the Rouhani Presidency

• Improved relations with the US (JCPOA)
• Lifted sanctions
• Re-election.
• Difficulties in maintaining reforms after 2017.

Civil Society

• Rise of civil society during periods of weak government
• Crackdowns as government's control increases.

The Government Attacks Civil Society

• Crack down on media, NGOs, and activists.
• Increased suppression following 2009 & 2013 elections.

Iran's Unique National Identity

• Distinct from other middle eastern countries (majority Shia; majority ethnically Iranian)
• National identity often expressed through historic tensions with other groups.
• Emphasis on pre-Islamic identity (historically shaped, not simply Islamic).
• Holidays, practices and symbols of ancient empires (Achaemenid and Zoroastrian).

Iran's Ethnic Diversity

• Several minorities exist, with ties to neighbouring countries
• Notable groups: Azeris, Kurds, Arabs, and Baluchis.
• Tensions linked with regional and national identities and sometimes independent political demands.

Ethnic Groups and Religions

• Pie charts show ethnic distribution and religions in Iran (99.4% Muslim, primarily Shia)
• Majority ethnic group (Persians)

Political Centralization and Ethnic Conflicts

• Centralized system might foster tensions
• Non-Persian groups facing discrimination.

Ideology and Political Culture

• Major divisions over the role of religion in the state.
• No formally organized political parties exist
• Dominant groups vie for positions within the regime.
• Divisions between quietist (reform) and principalist (conservative) ideologies.

Divisions Over the Economy

• Divisions over the state and the market (which align with quietist/reformist views)
• Skepticism from conservatives towards economic liberalization and relations with the international community.
• Iranian's views on the US (often negative or strongly unfavorable).

Sanctions and Coexistence

• Iran's approach to international conflict and coexistence.
• Public sentiment regarding conflict with the West.

Current Issues in Iran

• Nuclear energy and weapons programs (enrichment of uranium)
• JCPOA (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action or Iran nuclear deal)
• Public perception of the JCPOA
• Economic and foreign policies.