IO CHP 7-12 PDF

7 - GROUPS AND TEAMS ​ Global Teams - Teams with members from different countries Types of Groups and Teams Informal Groups Group - Two or more people who interact with one...

7 - GROUPS AND TEAMS ​ Global Teams - Teams with members from different countries Types of Groups and Teams Informal Groups Group - Two or more people who interact with one Formed by their members and consist of friendship another such that each person influences and is groups, which are relatively permanent, and influenced by each other person interest groups, which may be shorter-lived Team - An interdependent collection of at least two ​ Friendship Group - Is relatively permanent individuals who share a common goal and share and informal and draws its benefits from the accountability for the team’s as well as their own social relationships among its members outcomes (arise out of cordial personal relationships among members and the enjoy- ment they Workgroups get from being together) Workgroup - a formal group formed by an ​ Interest Group - Is relatively temporary and organization to do its work informal and is organized around a common ​ Command Group - A relatively permanent, activity or interest of its members formal group with functional reporting relationships and is usually included in the Group Performance Factors organization chart The five basic group performance factors are ​ Affinity Groups - Collections of employees composition, size, norms, cohesiveness, and from the same level in the organization who informal leadership meet on a regular basis to share information, capture emerging opportunities, Group Composition and solve problems The degree of similarity or difference among group members on factors important to the group’s work Teams -​ A group is homogeneous if the members ​ Functional Team - A team whose members are similar in one or several ways that are come from the same department or function critical to the work of the group, such as in area age, work experience, education, technical ​ Cross-functional Team - A team whose specialty, or cultural background (Simple members come from different departments Tasks) or functional areas -​ In heterogeneous groups, the members ​ Problem-solving Teams - Teams established differ in one or more ways that are critical to to solve problems and make improvements the work of the group (Complex Tasks) at work ​ Self-directed Teams - Teams that set their Group Size own goals and pursue them in ways A group—the number of people in the group—can decided by the team have as few as two members or as many members ​ Venture Teams - Teams that operate as can interact and influence one another. Group semi-autonomously to create and develop size can have an important effect on performance. new products (product development teams), ​ Social Loafing (The tendency of some processes (process design teams), or members of groups to put forth less effort in businesses (venture teams) a group than they would when working ​ Virtual Teams - Teams of geographically alone) and/or organizationally dispersed coworkers who communicate using the Internet and Group Norms other information technologies Norm - A standard against which the appropriateness of a behavior is judged  -​ norms determine the behavior expected in a ​ Informal Leader - A person who engages in certain situation. Group norms usually are leadership activities but whose right to do so established during the second stage of has not been formally recognized by the group development (communication and organization or group decision making) and are carried forward into the maturity stage. Creating New Groups and Team -​ Norms result from the combination of Stages of Group and Team Development members’ personality character- istics, the (1) mutual acceptance, (2) communication and situation, the task, and the historical decision making, (3) motivation and productivity, traditions of the group. and (4) control and organization. (Forming, Norming, Storming, Performing, Adjourning) Group Cohesiveness the extent to which a group is committed to ​ Mutual Acceptance Stage (also called the remaining together; it results from forces acting on forming stage) Characterized by members’ the members to remain in the group sharing information about themselves and -​ Group cohesiveness is related to many getting to know one another aspects of group dynamics: maturity, ​ Communication and Decision-Making homogeneity, manageable size, and Stage (also called storming stage) frequency of interactions. Members discuss their feelings more openly -​ Groupthink occurs when a group’s and agree on group goals and individual overriding concern is a unanimous decision roles in the group rather than a critical analysis of alternatives ​ Motivation and Productivity Stage (also called the norming stage) Members cooperate, help one another, and work toward accomplishing tasks ​ Control and Organization Stage (also called the performing stage) group works effectively toward accomplishing its goals. The group is mature; members work together and are flexible, adaptive, and self-correcting Understanding Team Performance Factors ​ Process Gain (Performance improvements that occur because people work together rather than independently) ​ Process Loss (Performance decrements that occur when a team performs worse than the individual members would have if they had worked alone) ​ Team Efficacy (A team’s shared belief that Informal Leadership it can organize and execute the behaviors Most functional groups and teams have a formal necessary to reach its goals) leader—that is, one appointed by the organization ​ Trust (Confidence that other people will or chosen or elected by the members of the group. honor their commitments, especially when it Even when a formal leader is designated, the group is difficult to monitor or observe the other or team may also look to others for leadership people’s behavior)  ​ Social Facilitation (Happens when people Managing Teams are motivated to look good to others and Understanding Benefits and Costs of Teams want to maintain a positive self-image) ​ Enhanced performance (come in many ​ Roles (Define the behaviors and tasks each forms, including improved productivity, team member is expected to perform quality, and customer service) because of the position they hold) ​ Reduced Costs (empowered teams reduce The Implementation Process scrap, make fewer errors, file fewer worker compen- sation claims, and reduce absenteeism and turnover) ​ Other Organizational Benefits (include increased innovation, creativity, and flexibility) ​ Employee Benefits (Teams can provide the sense of self-control, human dignity, identification with work, and sense of self-worth and self-fulfillment for which current workers seem to strive) ​ Phase 1: Start-Up (team members are selected and prepared to work in teams so that the teams have the best possible chance of success. Initial training is informational or “awareness” training) ​ Cost of Teams ​ Phase 2: Reality and Unrest (After perhaps -​ Expressed in terms of the difficulty of six to nine months, team members and changing to a team-based organization. managers report frustra- tion and confusion -​ Slowness of the process of full team about the ambiguities of the new situation) development. ​ Phase 3: Leader-Centered Teams (As the discomfort and frustrations of the previous Promoting Effective Performance phase peak, teams usually long for a ​ Top-Management Support (Change starts system that resembles the old manager- at the top in every team implementation. center organizational structure) Three important roles to play) ​ Phase 4: Tightly Formed Teams (teams -​ First, top management must decide to go to become tightly formed to the point that their a team-based organization for sound internal focus can become detrimental to business performance-related reasons. other teams and to the organization as a -​ Second, top management is instrumental in whole) communicating the reasons for the change ​ Phase 5: Self-Managing Teams (end result to the rest of the organization. of the months or years of planning and -​ Third, top management has to support the implementation. Mature teams are meeting change effort during the difficult periods. or exceeding their performance goals)  ​ Understanding Time Frames utilize the proper degree and type of participation -​ Ability to recognize the obstacles to collaborative group problem solv- ing and implement appropriate corrective actions 3.​ Communication abilities -​ Ability to communicate openly and supportively (Refer to Implementation Process) -​ Ability to listen objectively and to Organizations changing to a team-based appropriately use active listening techniques arrangement need to recognize the time and effort -​ Ability to maximize the congruence between involved in making such a change. Hopes for nonverbal and verbal messages and to immediate, positive results can lead to recognize and interpret the nonverbal disappointment. messages of others ​ Changing Organizational Rewards -​ The ability to engage in small talk and ritual The traditional reward and compensation systems greetings and a recognition of their suitable for individual motivation are simply not importance appropriate in a team-based organization. 4.​ Goal-setting and self-management abilities -​ Skill-Based Pay: Require team members to -​ The ability to help establish specific, acquire a set of core skills needed for their challenging, and accepted team goals particular team. Some programs require all -​ The ability to provide constructive feedback members to acquire the core skills before 5.​ Planning and task coordination abilities any member receives additional pay. -​ The ability to coordinate and synchronize -​ Gain-Sharing Systems: Reward all team activities, information, and tasks among members from all teams based on the team members performance of the organization, division, or -​ The ability to help establish task and role plant. assignments for individual team members -​ Team Bonus Plans: Similar to gain-sharing and ensure proper balancing of workload plans except that the unit of performance and pay is the team rather than a plant, a Team contract - A written agreement among team division, or the entire organization. members establishing ground rules about the team’s processes, roles, and accountabilities Teamwork Competencies Teamwork abilities you should look for are : Emerging Team Opportunities and Challenges 1.​ Conflict resolution abilities Virtual Teams (allow organizations to access the -​ Ability to recognize, encourage desirable most qualified individuals for a particular job and discourage undesirable team conflict regardless of their location, enable organizations to -​ Ability to recognize the type and source of respond faster to increased competition, and conflict confronting the team and implement provide greater flexibility to individuals) an appropriate resolution strategy ​ Virtual Team Leadership Skills -​ Ability to employ an integrative (win–win) Five categories of important leadership skills : negotiation strategy, rather than the 1.​ Communicating effectively and matching traditional distributive (win–lose) strategy technology to the situation: Collaborative 2.​ Collaborative problem-solving abilities online tools help virtual teams manage files, -​ Ability to identify situations requiring meetings, and task assignments. participative group problem solving and to 2.​ Building community among team members based on mutual trust, respect, affiliation,  and fairness: Effective leaders solicit and value the contributions of all team members, and consistently treat all team members with respect and fairness. 3.​ Establishing a clear and motivating shared vision, team purpose, goals, and expectations: Subtle messages, like quietly reminding someone not to attack ideas during a brainstorming session: powerful tools in shaping virtual team norms. 4.​ Leading by example and focusing on measurable results: Effective virtual leaders set clear goals and make clear task assignments. The leaders then hold team members accountable for them. 5.​ Coordinating and collaborating across organizational boundaries: Virtual team leaders need to work effectively with people in multiple organizations and with free agents and alliance partners who are not employees of the leader’s organization. ​ Leader Behaviors Leaders are expected to have the technical knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes to be able to contribute to team effectiveness and to operate effectively in a virtual environment. Thus, the need for virtual team leaders to monitor or develop team mem- bers may not be as crucial. In addition, virtual team leaders can distribute aspects of these functions to the team itself, making it more of a self-managing team ​ Groupware and Group Decision Support Systems Synchronous and asynchronous information technologies support members of virtual teams. The right technology is critical to making virtual teams work. Diversity and Multicultural Teams ​ Direct versus Indirect Communication ​ Differing Attitudes toward Hierarchy and Authority ​ Conflicting Decision-Making Norms 8—DECISION MAKING & PROBLEM SOLVING ​ State the Situational Goal Decision Making is choosing one alternative from ​ Identify the Problem among several. -​ to gather information that bears on the goal. Problem Solving is Finding the answer to a ​ Determine the Decision Type question -​ programmed/nonpogrammed decision -​ If a programmed decision is needed, the Types of Decision appropriate decision rule is invoked, and the ​ Decision Rule - A statement that tells a process moves on to the choice among decision maker which alternative to choose alternatives. based on the characteristics of the decision ​ Generate Alternatives situation ​ Evaluate Alternatives ​ Programmed Decision - A decision that -​ (1) describing the anticipated outcomes recurs often enough for a decision rule to be (benefits) of each alternative developed -​ (2) evaluating the antic- ipated costs of each ​ Nonprogrammed Decision - A decision alternative, and that recurs infrequently and for which there -​ (3) estimating the uncertainties and risks is no previously established decision rule associated with each alternative. ​ Choose an Alternative -​ Contingency Plans—alternative actions that can be taken if the primary course of action is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate ​ Implement the Plan -​ Puts the decision into action. It builds on the Decision-Making Conditions commitment and motivation of those who ​ Condition of Certainty - Manager knows participated in the decision-making process what the outcomes of each alternative of a -​ Post-Decision Dissonance (Doubt about a given action will be and has enough choice that has already been made) information to estimate the probabilities of ​ Control: Measure and Adjust various outcomes -​ outcomes of the decision are measured and ​ Condition of Risk - The decision maker compared with the desired goal. If a cannot know with certainty what the discrepancy remains, the decision maker outcome of a given action will be but has may restart the decision-making process by enough information to estimate the setting a new goal probabilities of various outcomes ​ Strengths and Weaknesses of the Rational ​ Condition of Uncertainty - The decision Approach maker lacks enough information to estimate the probability of possible outcomes Evidence-Based Decision Making ​ Evidence-Based Management (EBM) - The RATIONAL APPROACH TO DECISION MAKING commitment to identify and utilize the best -​ A systematic, step-by- step process for theory and data available to make decisions making decisions ​ Five Basic “principles”: 1. Face the hard facts, and build a culture in which Steps in Rational people are encouraged to tell the truth, even if it’s Decision Making: unpleasant. 2. Be committed to “fact-based” decision ​ Risk Propensity and Decision Making making—which means being commit- ted to getting -​ Risk Propensity (The extent to which a the best evidence and using it to guide actions. decision maker is willing to gamble in 3. Treat your organization as an unfinished making a decision) prototype—encourage experimen- tation and ​ Ethics and Decision Making learning by doing. -​ Ethics (A person’s beliefs about what 4. Look for the risks and drawbacks in what people constitutes right and wrong behavior) recommend ​ Prospect Theory and Decision Making 5. Avoid basing decisions on untested but strongly -​ prospect theory (Argues that when people held beliefs, what you have done in the past, or make decisions under a condition of risk uncritical “benchmarking” of what winner they are more motivated to avoid losses than they are to seek gains) BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO DECISION MAKIN Whereas the rational approach assumes that Integrated Approach to Decision Making managers operate logically and rationally, the -​ Because of the unrealistic demands of the behavioral approach acknowledges the role and rational approach and the limited, short-term importance of human behavior in the orientation of the behavioral approach, decision-making process. worthwhile features of each can be ​ Administrative Model of Decision Making combined into a practical approach to (Argues that managers use bounded decision making rationality, rules of thumb, suboptimizing, -​ This process is the same as in the rational and satisficing in making decisions) approach; however, the conditions recognized by the behavioral approach are The Administrative Model added to provide a more realistic process. ​ Bounded Rationality (Idea that decision makers cannot deal with information about all the aspects and alternatives pertaining to a problem and therefore choose to tackle some meaningful subset of it) ​ Suboptimizing (Knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the organization) ​ Satisficing (Examining alternatives only until a solution that meets minimal requirements is found) Other Behavior Forces in Decision Making GROUP DECISION MAKING IN ORGANIZATION ​ Political Forces in Decision Making ​ Group Polarization (The tendency for a -​ Coalition (informal alliance of individuals or group’s average post- discussion attitudes groups formed to achieve a common goal) to be more extreme than its average ​ Intuition pre-discussion attitudes) -​ An innate belief about something without ​ Groupthink (A mode of thinking that occurs conscious consideration when members of a group are deeply ​ Escalation of Commitment involved in a cohesive in-group, and the -​ Occurs when a decision maker stays with a desire for unanimity offsets their motivation decision even when it appears to be wrong to appraise alternative courses of action) -​ Three primary conditions that foster the the group may fail to examine it for non development of groupthink are (1) obvious risks and drawbacks. The group cohesiveness, (2) the leader’s promotion of may not reexamine previously rejected his or her preferred solution, and (3) alternatives for nonobvious gains or some insulation of the group from experts’ opinion means of reducing apparent costs, even -​ 8 Well-defined Symptoms : when it receives new information. The group 1.​ Illusion of invulnerability, shared by may reject expert opinions that run counter members, that creates excessive optimism to its own views and may choose to and encourages extreme risk taking consider only information that sup- ports its 2.​ Collective efforts to rationalize or discount preferred solution. warnings that might lead members to -​ Prevention of Groupthink reconsider assumptions before recommitting themselves to past policy decisions 3.​ An unquestioned belief in the group’s inherent morality, inclining members to ignore the ethical and moral consequences of their decisions 4.​ Stereotyped views of “enemy” leaders as too evil to warrant genuine attempts to negotiate or as too weak or stupid to Participation in Decision Making counter whatever risky attempts are made (Read more in the Book!) to defeat their purposes -​ Early Management Theories: a clear 5.​ Direct pressure on a member expressing separation between the duties of managers strong arguments against any of the group’s and workers: Management was to make the stereotypes, illusions, or commitments, decisions, and employees were to making clear that such dissent is contrary to implement them. what is expected of loyal members -​ Other Approaches: employees be allowed 6.​ Self-censorship of deviations from the to participate to increase their ego apparent group consensus, reflecting each involvement, motivation, and satisfaction member’s inclination to minimize the importance of his or her doubts and Group Problem Solving counterarguments ​ Brainstorming (A technique used in the 7.​ A shared illusion of unanimity, resulting idea-generation phase of decision making partly from self-censorship of devia- tions, that assists in development of numerous augmented by the false assumption that alternative courses of action) silence means consent ​ Nominal Group Technique (Group 8.​ The emergence of self-appointed members follow a generate–discuss–vote “mindguards,” members who protect the cycle until they reach a decision) group from adverse information that might ​ Delphi Technique (A method of shatter their shared complacency about the systematically gathering judgments of effectiveness and morality of their decisions experts for use in developing forecasts) -​ Decision-Making Defects and Decision Quality (group is less likely to survey a full range of alternatives and may focus on only a few. In discussing a preferred alternative, CREATIVITY, PROBLEM SOLVING, AND DECISION MAKING Creativity (Ability to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas) The Creative Individual Common attributes of creative individuals fall into three categories: (1) background experiences, (2) personal traits, and (3) cognitive abilities. -​ Background Experiences and Creativity (creative individuals were raised in an Enhancing Creativity in Organizations environment in which creativity was -​ One important method for enhancing nurtured) creativity is to make it a part of the -​ Personal Traits and Creativity (The traits organization’s culture, often through explicit shared by most creative people are goals openness, an attraction to complexity, high -​ Another important part of enhancing levels of energy, independence and creativity is to reward creative suc- cesses, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a while being careful to not punish creative strong belief that one is, in fact, creative) failures. -​ Cognitive Abilities and Creativity (Cognitive abilities are an individual’s power to think intelligently and to analyze situations and data effectively. Intelligence may be a precondition for individual creativity) The Creative Process -​ Preparation (Usually the first stage in the creative process, includes education and formal training) -​ Incubation (The stage of less-intense conscious concentration during which a creative person lets the knowledge and ideas acquired during preparation mature and develop) -​ Insight (The stage in the creative process in which all the scattered thoughts and ideas that were maturing during incubation come together to produce a breakthrough) -​ Verification (The final stage of the creative process, the validity or truthfulness of the insight is determined) 9 — COMMUNICATION communicates a message without expecting Communication is the process of transmitting or getting any feedback from the receiver) information from one person to another to create a ​ Two-way Communication (Once a receiver shared understanding and feeling. provides feedback to a sender, the sender and receiver have engaged in two-way Communication Process communication) ​ Encoding - Converting a thought, idea, or fact into a message composed of symbols, Task Interdependence pictures, or words Leads to an increase in communications ​ Message - The encoded information requirements. The three major forms of ​ Channel - The medium used to send the interdependence (1) pooled, (2) sequential, and (3) message reciprocal. ​ Decoding - Translating the message back into something that can be understood by the receiver ​ Feedback - A check on the success of the communication ​ Noise - Anything that blocks, distorts, or changes in any way the message the sender intended to communicate ​ Pooled interdependence is when employees work independently and their output is Verbal and Nonverbal Communication combined into group output. ​ Verbal communication - communicating via ​ Sequential interdependence requires tasks spoken words or phrases to be performed in a certain order. This -​ Typically happens in real time, but can be increases the need for communication as asynchronous - indi- viduals or groups are dependent on -​ Intranet (an organization's private network other individuals or groups for the resources through which employees securely they need to complete their own tasks. communicate and collaborate) ​ Reciprocal interdependence requires -​ Verbal intonation - the emphasis given to constant communication and mutual spoken words or phrases adjustment for task completion, such as a ​ Nonverbal communication - cross-functional research and development communications that are not spoken or team, or an event-planning team, and written but that have meaning to others creates the highest potential for conflict. -​ Body language (a body movement such as a gesture or expression that conveys Communication Characteristics information to others) ​ Clarity - An organized message that can be -​ Verbal Intonation (The emphasis given to interpreted with little or no contusion spoken words and phrases) ​ Conciseness - Conveying information ​ Written communication - communication efficiently through a singular focus, avoiding that occurs via digital, printed, or written over complex messages; saying "more with words or symbols less" ​ Consistency - Ensuring the core meaning One-Way and Two-Way Communication remains the same across messages, across ​ One-way Communication (information flows channels and media, and over time in only one direction. The sender ​ Audience consideration - Identifying one's audience and adapting a message to the  audience's size, level of understanding, ​ Collaboration Software (Online Interests, attitudes, and beliefs collaboration tools allow members of workgroups to share information to improve Barriers to communication their communication, efficiency, and ​ Selective perception - We selectively see performance. By providing features like and hear based on our expectations and planning tools and an online meeting site, beliefs. these tools enhance the collaborative ​ Misperception - Messages are not always abilities and efficiency of team members by decoded by the receiver in the way the integrating work being done on a single sender intended. project simultaneously by several users at ​ Filtering - Information is intentionally different computers located anywhere) withheld, ignored, or distorted to influence ​ Intranets (Type of centralized information the message that is ultimately received. clearinghouse. At its simplest, an intranet is ​ Information overload - It is possible to have a website stored on a computer that is so much information that it is impossible to connected to other company computers by process all of it. an internal network) ​ Organizational barriers - A firm’s ​ Oral Communication (One expert advises hierarchical structure and culture can people to use electronic communication influence who is allowed to communicate only for transmitting and confirming simple what to whom, and may limit how messages information and to have actual can be sent. conversations for anything that could ​ Cultural barriers - Different national cultures possibly be sensitive. Communicating in have different ways of expressing things. person is important to building credibility -​ low-context cultures (Cultures that rely on and trust) words to convey meaning) ​ Media Richness -​ high-context cultures (Situational, nonverbal -​ Interactivity, or the availability of feedback. cues are used to convey meaning) Immediate feedback allows senders to ​ Noise - Anything that blocks, distorts, or adjust their messages. Richer media changes the message the sender intended provide faster feedback. to communicate can create a barrier. -​ The ability to transmit multiple cues, such as physical presence, voice inflection, Communication Skills nonverbal cues, and pictures. Richer media ​ Listening Skills allow the communication of multiple cues. -​ Active Listening - Actively involved in the -​ Language variety for conveying a broad set process of listening to what others are of concepts and ideas. Richer media allow saying and clarifying messages’ meaning for greater language variety. ​ Giving and Receiving Feedback -​ The personal focus of the medium, or the ​ Writing Skills degree to which it allows the expression of ​ Presentation Skills emotions and other social cues. Richer ​ Meeting Skills media allow for more personal focus. Communication Media Organizational Communication ​ The Internet The exchange of information among two or more -​ Information Pull (Occurs when someone individuals or groups in an organization that creates receives requested information) a common basis of understanding and feeling -​ Information Push (Occurs when information is received that was not requested)  ​ Downward Communication (occurs when higher-level employees communicate to those at lower levels in the organization) ​ Upward Communication (Upward communication occurs when lower-level employees communicate with those at higher levels) ​ Horizontal Communication (occurs when someone in an organization communicates with others at the same organizational level.) ​ Diagonal Communication (When employees communicate across departments and levels. Common in cross-functional project teams composed of people from different levels drawn from different departments) ​ Formal and Informal Communication -​ Formal communications are official, organization-sanctioned communications -​ Informal communication is anything that is not official. Include gossip and answering another employee’s question about how to do something. ​ Social Networking (The set of relationships among people connected through friendship, family, work, or other ties) Communication Styles way in which people interact and exchange information with others ​ Passive communication style - avoiding conflict and prioritizing the desires and needs of others over one's own desires and needs ​ Passive-aggressive communication style - appearing cooperative but silently feeling or doing the opposite of what one is communicating ​ Assertive communication style - openly communicating one s needs, desires, and ideas while considering the needs of others and not being overbearing ​ Aggressive communication style - dominating or controlling others by blaming, intimidating, criticizing, threatening, or attacking them 10 - MANAGING CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATING -​ Information Conflict (occurs when people lack import- ant information, are THE NATURE OF CONFLICT misinformed, interpret information ​ conflict - A disagreement through which two differently, or disagree about which or more parties perceive a threat to their information is relevant) interests, needs, or concerns ​ Task interdependence - when one person ​ dysfunctional conflict - Destructive conflict or unit is dependent on another for focused on emotions and differences resources or information, the potential for between the two parties conflict increases ​ constructive conflict - Adaptive, positive conflict (also called functional conflict) Organizational Structure conflict (either horizontal or vertical) can result from Common Causes of Conflict structural or process features of the organization ​ Differing task goals - disagreements over -​ Structural Conflict (Conflict resulting from what is to be accomplished structural or process features of the -​ Task Conflict (A disagreement about the organization) task or goals) -​ Vertical Conflict (Conflict that occurs ​ Differing process goals - disagreements across different hierarchical levels in the over how to accomplish tasks or goals organization) -​ Process Conflict (Conflict about how to accomplish a task, who is responsible for Conflict Escalation what, and how things should be delegated) ​ Interpersonal differences - differences in motivation, aspirations, or personality -​ Relationship Conflict (Conflict due to incompatibility or differences between individuals or groups) ​ Resource constraints - incompatible needs or competition over perceived or actual resource constraints -​ Conflicts of Interest (due to incompatible needs or competition ever perceived or actual resource constraints) ​ Change - the uncertainty of change often creates conflict and changes the relative importance of different organizational groups ​ Differing values - perceived or actual incompatibilities in beliefs about what is De-Escalating Conflict good or bad, right or wrong, or fair or unfair -​ Values Conflict (arising from perceived or actual incompatibilities in belief systems) ​ Poor communication - when people lack necessary information, are misinformed, interpret information differently, or disagree about which data is relevant Role of Emotion in Conflict Creating Constructive Conflict Controlling your emotions and staying focused on -​ To successfully create constructive conflict, the issues can help to prevent a conflict from organizations often punish conflict avoiders. escalating. Assessing and acknowledging the Rewarding employees who engage in emotions of the other party can also help you to constructive conflict can help to reduce more effectively manage the conflict. employees’ fears of ridicule or rejection -​ Assigning one or more employees to play INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT the role of devil’s advocate can help to STRATEGIES generate constructive conflict by providing a ​ Collaborating - A conflict management style safer environment for the introduction of reflecting a desire to give both parties what different perspectives. they want ​ Compromising - A conflict management THE NEGOTIATION PROCESS style in which each side sacrifices Negotiating Skills something in order to end the conflict ​ Negotiation (Process in which two or more ​ Competing - Pursuing one’s own interest at parties make offers, counteroffers, and the expense of the other party concessions in order to reach an agreement ​ Accommodating - A cooperative conflict -​ Distributive Negotiation (Gain to one party management style is offset by an equivalent loss to the other) ​ Avoiding - Ignoring the conflict or denying -​ Integrative Negotiation (A win–win that it exists negotiation in which the agreement involves no loss to either party) CONFLICT PROCESS Cultural Issues in Negotiations Intercultural negotiation requires paying attention to issues beyond what is being negotiated. Appropriateness of different negotiation tactics, the emphasis put on developing relationships, how to respond to deadlines, and even where the negotiation should be held are all influenced by national culture. Conflict Management Skills Professionals in conflict resolution training suggest Alternative Dispute Resolution four areas of skill development: (Involving a third party in a negotiation to overcome 1. Listening (including eye contact, rephrasing, and a stalemate between the parties) summarizing what each side tells you to show them ​ Conciliation (A third party builds a positive that you understand each side’s position) relationship between the parties and directs 2. Questioning them toward a satisfactory settlement) 3. Communicating nonverbally ​ Mediation (An impartial third party (the 4. Mediating mediator) facilitates a discussion using persuasion and logic, suggesting alternates, and establishing each side’s priorities) ​ Arbitration (A third party is involved and usually has the authority to impose a settlement on the parties) -​ ombudsman (Someone who investigates complaints and mediates fair settlements between aggrieved parties) 11 - TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP APPROACHES ​ Ohio State leadership studies (Defined THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP leader consideration and initiating-structure ​ Leadership - Both a process and a property behaviors as independent dimensions of ​ Leadership (as process) - Involves the use leadership) of noncoercive influence -​ Consideration behavior (Involves being ​ Leadership (as property) - The set of concerned with subordinates’ feelings and characteristics attributed to someone who is respecting subordinates’ ideas) perceived to use influence successfully -​ Initiating-structure behavior (Involves ​ Influence - The ability to affect the clearly defining the leader–subordinate roles perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, motivation, so that subordinates know what is expected and/or behaviors of others of them) ​ Leadership Grid Leadership versus Management THE EMERGENCE OF SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODELS Situational models assume that appropriate leader EARLY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP behavior varies from one situation to another. The Trait Approaches to Leadership goal of a situational theory, then, is to identify key -​ Attempted to identify stable and enduring situational factors and to specify how they interact character traits that differentiated effective to determine appropriate leader behavior. leaders from nonleaders Behavioral Approach (to leadership) -​ Tried to identify behaviors that differentiated effective leaders from nonleaders ​ Michigan leadership studies (Defined job-centered and employee-centered LPC THEORY OF LEADERSHIP (Fred Fiedler) leadership as opposite ends of a single Suggests that a leader’s effectiveness depends on leadership dimension) the situation -​ job-centered leader behavior (Involves ​ Task versus Relationship Motivation paying close attention to the work of -​ Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) - Scale subordinates, explaining work procedures, presumed to measure a leader’s motivation and demonstrating a strong interest in ​ Situational Favorableness performance) Three factors that determine the favorableness of -​ employee-centered leader behavior the situation. (1) leader–member relations, refer (Involves attempting to build effective work to the personal relationship that exists between groups with high performance goals) subordinates and their leader. (2) task structure, happens to them results from their own the second most important determinant of behavior or from external causes, and (2) situational favorableness. A structured task is perceived ability, pertaining to how people routine, simple, easily understood, and unambigu- view their own ability with respect to the ous. and (3) leader position power, the power task. inherent in the leader’s role itself. ​ Leader Motivation and Situational VROOM’S DECISION TREE APPROACH Favorableness Attempts to prescribe how much participation subordinates should be allowed in making decisions Basic Premises Vroom’s decision tree approach assumes that the degree to which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in decision making ​ Leader-Situation Match depends on the characteristics of the situation. Mismatched leaders cannot readily adapt to the situation and achieve effectiveness. When a The various decision styles reflected represent leader’s style and the situation do not match, the different levels of subordinate participation that the only available course of action is to change the manager should attempt to adopt in a given situation through “job engineering.” situation. The five styles are defined as follows: 1. Decide: The manager makes the decision alone PATH–GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP and then announces or “sells” it to the group. Basic Premises 2. Delegate: The manager allows the group to Path-Goal Theory of Leadership (Suggests that define for itself the exact nature and parameters of effective leaders clarify the paths (behaviors) that the problem and then develop a solution. will lead to desired rewards (goals) 3. Consult (Individually): Manager presents the program to group mem- bers individually, obtains ​ Leader Behaviors their suggestions, and then makes the decision. Kinds of leader behavior: Directive, Supportive, 4. Consult (Group): The manager presents the Participative, and Achievement-oriented problem to group members at a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision. 5. Facilitate: The manager presents the problem to the group at a meeting, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as members make the decision. ​ Situational Factors -​ Path–goal theory proposes two types of situational factors that influence how leader behavior relates to subordinate satisfaction: The personal Characteristics of the Subordinates and The Characteristics of the Environment -​ Two important personal characteristics of subordinates are (1) locus of control, the extent to which individuals believe that what 12 - CONTEMPORARY VIEWS OF LEADERSHIP ​ Charismatic Leadership (influence based CONTEMPORARY SITUATIONAL THEORIES on the leader’s personal charisma) ​ Leader–Member Exchange Model -​ Charisma (interpersonal attraction that (Stresses the importance of variable inspires support and acceptance) relationships between supervisors and each -​ Robert House’s theory suggests that of their subordinates) charismatic leaders are likely to have a lot -​ In-group (Often receives special duties of self-confidence, firm confidence in their requiring more responsibility and autonomy; beliefs and ideals, and a strong need to they may also receive special privileges, influence people. They also tend to such as more discretion about work communicate high expectations about schedules) follower performance and to express -​ Out-group (Receive less of the supervisor’s confidence in their followers. time and attention and are likely to be assigned the more mundane tasks the group must perform and not be “in the loop” when information is being shared) ​ Attribution and Leadership -​ Attribution Perspective on Leadership (Holds that when behaviors are observed in a context associated with leadership, ​ Hersey and Blanchard model different people may attribute varying levels -​ Based on the premise that appropriate of leadership ability or power to the person leader behavior depends on the “readiness” displaying those behaviors) of the leader’s followers (i.e., the subordinate’s degree of motivation, ALTERNATIVES TO LEADERSHIP competence, experience, and interest in ​ Leadership Substitutes (Individual, task, accepting responsibility) and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader’s ability to affect subordinates’ satisfaction and performance) -​ If certain factors are present, the employee will perform his or her job capably without the direction of a leader. Unlike traditional theories, which assume that hierarchical leadership in one form or another is always important, the premise of the leadership substitute perspective is that leader LEADERSHIP IN THE EYES OF FOLLOWERS behaviors may be irrelevant in some ​ Transformational Leadership (The set of situations. abilities that allows the leader to recognize the need for change, to create a vision to guide that change, and to execute the change effectively -​ Transactional Leadership (Leadership focused on routine, regimented activities)  ​ Leadership Neutralizers (Factors that ​ International Leadership and Project render ineffective a leader’s attempts to GLOBE (Global Leadership and engage in various leadership behaviors) Organizational Behavior Research Project) -​ GLOBE was initiated by Robert House. GLOBE identified six leader behaviors that THE CHANGING NATURE OF LEADERSHIP can be observed and assessed across a ​ Leaders as Coaches variety of cultures. These behaviors are: -​ Mentor (Role of helping a less experienced (1) Charismatic/value-based leadership: ability to person learn the ropes to better prepare for inspire, motivate, and promote high performance; career success) includes being visionary, self-sacrificing, trust- -​ Organizations are attempting to become worthy, decisive, and performance oriented. less hierarchical—that is, to eliminate the (2) Team-oriented leadership: emphasizes team old-fashioned command-and-control building and creating a sense of common purpose; mentality often inherent in bureaucratic includes being collaborative, diplomatic, and organizations and to motivate and empower administratively competent. individuals to work independently. (3) Participative leadership: the extent to which leaders involve others in mak- ing decisions; ​ Gender and Leadership includes being participative and nonautocratic. -​ There are fundamental differences in (4) Humane-oriented leadership: being supportive, leadership as practiced by women and men. considerate, compassionate, and generous; -​ One possibility is that women may tend to includes displaying modesty and sensitivity. have stronger interpersonal skills than men (5) Autonomous leadership: being independent and and are hence better able to effectively individualist; includes being autonomous and involve others in making decisions. Men unique. may have weaker interpersonal skills and (6) Self-protective leadership: behaviors intending thus have a tendency to rely on their own to ensure the safety and secu- rity of the leader and judgment. the group; includes being self-centered, status -​ The other possible explanation is that conscious, con- flict inducing, and face saving. women may encounter more stereotypic resistance to their occupying senior roles. If EMERGING ISSUES IN LEADERSHIP this is the case, they may actively work to ​ Strategic Leadership (Capability to involve oth- ers in making decisions so as to understand the complexities of both the help minimize any hostility or conflict organization and its environment and to lead change in the organization so as to ​ Cross-Cultural Leadership achieve and maintain a superior alignment -​ In this context, culture is used as a broad between organization and its environment) concept to encompass both international ​ Ethical Leadership (Process of leading differences and diversity-based differences based on consistent principles of ethical within a single culture. Cross-cultural factors conduct) clearly play a growing role in organizations ​ Virtual Leadership (Leadership via as their workforces become more and more distance technologies) diverse. -​ Read more in the book