Introduction to Linguistics Exam Materials PDF

kIntroduction to linguistics final exam materials 4th floor study- sociolinguistic study that can be associated with William Labov (performed 1966) when he analyzed how people’s pronunciation varied depending on their social class. It was basically about the pronunciation of ‘r’ (in ‘fourth’). Acco...

kIntroduction to linguistics final exam materials 4th floor study- sociolinguistic study that can be associated with William Labov (performed 1966) when he analyzed how people’s pronunciation varied depending on their social class. It was basically about the pronunciation of ‘r’ (in ‘fourth’). According to this study people (salespeople) from upper class pronounced the ‘r’ more clearly, whereas those from lower class were characterized by more dropped ‘r’. Results from sales representatives in the store that were more middle class, were uncertain, as they sometimes pronounced ‘r’ and sometimes not. However, after asking to repeat it, they emphasized ‘r’ more which shows linguistic awareness and self-correction to sound more prestigious. This “experiment” showed how language reflects social status, and how people adjust their speech to fit societal expectations. Accent- can be defined as any variety that systematically differs from other varieties in pronunciation; a distinguishable type of pronunciation. (It is not about vocabulary or grammar, but more about the way we pronounce words) +Dialect- a more or less identifiable regional or social variety of a language; it means that dialect is more than just accent- it includes differences in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. Agglutinative language- type of language in which (words usually longer than 1 syllable), consist of stem (the core meaning) and added one or more affixes (prefixes, suffixes)- that convey grammatical information. Affixes are added one after another (linearly). (e.g. Japanese, Turkish) +Polysynthetic language- this language creates very long words that contain what would be a full sentence/phrase in another language. It combines multiple morphemes into a single complex word (e.g. Mohawk) Analytic language- is a language in which words typically have one form and do not change to express different grammatical relations. Analytic languages rely on word order, context. (e.g. Chinese) Arbitrariness- there is no natural connection between the form of a word and its meaning. It’s a matter of convention agreed upon by the community. (de Saussure) Beats- are short quick movements of the hand or fingers. These gestures accompany the rhythm of talk and are often used to emphasize parts you want to be focused on. (part of gesture) Bilingualism- the ability of an individual to use two languages fluently. Cataphora- is a type of cohesion where a word or phrase refers to something that appears later in the discourse (e.g. “If you want them, there are some cookies in the kitchen”) Co-reference (cataphora, anaphora, exophora)- occurs when two or more expressions in a sentence refer to the same entity. (anaphora (backward reference)- John arrived late because he missed the bus (refers to john)) (exophora (contextual reference)- Look at that! (What that refers to depends on the situation.)) Cocktail party effect- refers to the ability to focus on a specific conversation in a noisy environment while filtering out other background noise. Code switching- situation when words or phrases from two or more languages are used within the same conversation. Cognates (+ some examples)- are words of the same etymological origin (same ancestor language). A cognate of a word in one language (English) is a word in another language (German), that has a similar form and is or was used with similar meaning. (cognates typically have similar spelling) (e.g. mother, Mutter) Colligations- refer to the grammatical patterns or structures that words typically follow within a language, especially in terms of syntax and sentence structure. Colligations focus on how words combine based on grammar rules. (e.g. hear her singing) Collocations- it's an idea that some words occur in each other's company more often than others (sometimes to the degree that you can't substitute one word from the pair without changing the meaning) (e.g. red wine, strong coffee, give birth) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously- this sentence demonstrates that syntax is independent from semantics. This sentence is syntactically correct, as it follows grammatical rules (a subject, a verb, and an adverb), but semantically doesn’t make sense. Combinatoriality- the ability to join smaller meaningless units (phonemes) into larger meaningful units (morphemes/words). Communication- refers to the process by which information, ideas, or emotions are exchanged between individuals. Competence- refers to an individual's underlying, internalized knowledge of their native language. This is the mental representation of the language system, which allows speakers to generate and understand an infinite number of sentences, even those they've never encountered before. (Noam Chomsky) Compositionality- is the principle that the meaning of a complex expression (such as a sentence or phrase) can be determined by combining the meanings of its individual components (like words or morphemes) in a systematic way. Connotation- refers to the additional meanings, associations, or emotions that a word or phrase carries beyond its literal or primary definition (which is called the denotation). (e.g. ‘home’- associated with warmth, comfort) Constancy under negation- refers to the phenomenon in which the meaning of a phrase or sentence remains consistent or stable even when the sentence is negated (e.g. ‘She is happy’ and ‘She is not happy’- idea is that a person experiences happiness, negation simply symbolizes lack of it) Constituency parsing- the sentence is broken down into a hierarchical structure, with smaller constituents nested inside larger ones. These constituents can be phrases, such as noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP), or prepositional phrases (PP). +Dependency parsing- which focuses on the relationships between words in a sentence. Instead of breaking the sentence into hierarchical groups of constituents (like in constituency parsing), dependency parsing analyzes how words depend on each other to form meaningful structures. (e.g. In the sentence "The dog barked loudly," "barked" is the head of the sentence because the other words (like "dog" and "loudly") depend on it. Constituent- refers to a group of words that function together as a single unit within a sentence or phrase. (e.g. noun phrase (NP) ‘the big dog’ or verb phrase (VP) ‘is running very quickly’) Context: co-text- refers to the surrounding text or language elements (words, phrases, sentences) that provide meaning to a particular word, phrase, or sentence. The co-text helps us interpret a specific part of a text in relation to the words around it, aiding in understanding the intended meaning or how different elements are related. In contrast, context includes both linguistic factors (co-text) and extralinguistic factors, such as the social situation, the speaker’s intention, cultural knowledge, and more Conventional sign- is a symbol, word, or gesture whose meaning is agreed upon by a community through social norms, rather than any natural connection to what it represents. (Peirce’s typology) Creole- is a fully developed natural language that arises from the mixing of different languages, usually in a situation where speakers of different linguistic backgrounds need to communicate. (it emerges from pidgin). Creolisation- is the process by which a pidgin language develops into a creole, becoming a fully structured, stable, and native language for a speech community. This transformation occurs when a pidgin becomes the first language of a new generation, leading to the development of a more complex and systematic grammar. Deep structure- is a simple, declarative sentence that specifies the core meaning of the sentence. Deictic gestures (indexes); evolutionary linguistics- deictics means pointing and we often use gestures to point to things or people while talking (it does not convey meaning, it is used to draw somebody’s attention; it requires context). Evolutionary linguists suggest that language may have originated from gestures before spoken words emerged. Deixis- refers to words and expressions that depend on the context for their interpretation. These words do not have a fixed meaning on their own; instead, their meaning "points to" a person, place, time, or situation relative to the speaker. (e.g. person deixis ‘me’, ‘us’; place deixis ‘here’, ‘near’) Denotation- is the literal, dictionary definition of a word, without any emotional or cultural associations. It refers to the explicit meaning that a word directly conveys. (e.g. ‘home’- as a place where someone lives) Design features of language ​ Vocal-Auditory channel- language is mainly transmitted through speech (vocal) and hearing (auditory) (human language is primarily spoken, animals use different methods to communicate as body gestures) ​ Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception- when we speak, sound waves travel in all directions but a listener can determine where the sound is coming from. (animals also use this in their calls) ​ Rapid fading- speech disappears quickly after being spoken. (same with animals) ​ Interchangeability- any speaker can both send and receive messages. (some animals, except for bees, for example) ​ Total feedback- we can hear and monitor our own speech and correct mistakes. (animals also do this, but not always consciously) ​ Specialization- language is specifically for communication, not for other biological functions. (depends, bees dancing serves also different purposes) ​ Semanticity- words and sounds have specific meanings. (some animals, like vervet monkeys have different calls for different predators) ​ Arbitrariness- there is no natural connection between a word and its meaning (there is nothing ‘dog-like’ in the word ‘dog’) (animal signs are often linked to their meaning) ​ Discreteness- language consists of small, separate units (sounds, words, sentences) that can be combined in different ways. (/p/,/i/,/g/ as in ‘pig’ or ‘gip’) (animal sounds do not break into smaller parts) ​ Displacement- we can talk about things that are not present (past, future, imaginary). (animals can only communicate about present) ​ Productivity- language allows us to create an infinite number of new sentences using a limited set of words. (animal sounds are usually fixed) ​ Cultural transmission- language is learned from other people, not inherited biologically. ​ Duality of patterning- language works on two levels: 1.​ Sounds (phonemes) – meaningless by themselves (e.g., /b/, /a/, /t/) 2.​ Meaningful combinations (words/sentences) – “bat” is meaningful, but /b/, /a/, and /t/ are not. Diachronic linguistics- studying the history of languages, especially language change across a certain time period. +Synchronic linguistics- studying a particular language system at a particular time. Diglossia- a situation where two very different varieties co-occur throughout a speech community, each with a distinct range of social function. (there can be low or high variety, it is basically kinda like bilingualism that occurs in group of people) E-language- (short for External Language) refers to language as an external, observable phenomenon that exists in the world, in texts, in speech, and in society. (od tego chuja chomsky’ego). English among Indo-European languages- English is part of the Indo-European language family, which is the world’s largest and most widely distributed language family. It is a member of the Germanic branch (West Germanic) within the Indo-European family. Entailment- is a fundamental concept in logic that refers to the relationship between two statements where one statement logically follows from the other(s). In other words, if one statement is true, then the second statement must also be true. Etymology- the study of the origins of words and how the meaning of those words change. Exophora- (contextual reference) the reference is outside the text and depends on the context. (e.g. "She is coming soon." (Without context, we don’t know who she is.)) (type of co-reference) Extralinguistic context- is all the extra information that helps make sense of what is being said, beyond just the words or grammar. FLB- The Faculty of Language in the Broad Sense, introduced by Noam Chomsky, refers to the mental abilities humans are born with to learn, produce, and understand language. FLB includes not only the specific linguistic abilities necessary for language use but also other cognitive abilities that are linked to the use of language. FLN- The Faculty of Language in the Narrow Sense focuses on the core language skills. It’s the system humans are born with that allows us to produce and understand language. Generative grammar- a research tradition originated by Noam Chomsky; an attempt to formulate subconscious rules that model a person's grammatical knowledge ​ Key concepts in generative grammar: 1. Transformational grammar- system of rules which allows deep structure (abstract, underlying meaning) transform into surface structure (actual grammatical form that we hear or see) 2. Independence of syntax from semantics- syntax (the rules governing sentence structure) is considered independent from semantics (meaning) 3. Universal grammar- the pre-existing knowledge about grammar that is universal to all human languages and all people. 4. Competence/performance distinction- makes a distinction between linguistic competence (speaker’s underlying knowledge of language) and linguistic performance (actual use of language in real-life situations) 5. Innateness - suggests that language acquisition is an innate human ability—we are born with an inherent capacity to learn language 6. Well-formedness- refers to the grammaticality of a sentence — whether a sentence is correctly structured according to the rules of a particular language. 7. Principles and parameters- it is the idea that there are certain universal principles that apply to all languages, but parameters allow languages to differ from one another based on how these principles are set. Gesture-first hypothesis and evidence- suggests that gestures, particularly manual gestures (hand movements), played a fundamental role in the evolution of language. According to this hypothesis, before humans developed spoken language, they likely used gestures as the primary means of communication. Over time, these gestures may have evolved into more complex forms, eventually leading to the development of spoken language. EVIDENCE ​ Non-human primates, such as chimpanzees and gorillas, use gestures extensively to communicate with each other. For instance, gorillas like Koko (a gorilla that was taught sign language) have been observed using gestures in a way that resembles human sign language. ​ existence of sign languages, like ASL Gesture: emblem- often contain iconic or metaphoric elements, but are conventionalized signs with culture-specific meanings; example for an emblem is the OK sign. Grammaticalization: semantic bleaching- is a key concept in the process of grammaticalization. It refers to the loss of the original, specific meaning of a word as it undergoes grammaticalization, resulting in a weakened, more abstract meaning. (e.g. ‘will’) Historical linguistics- is the branch of linguistics that studies the evolution and changes in languages over time. It seeks to understand how languages develop, diverge, and transform, and aims to uncover the historical relationships between languages through the study of their changes in phonetics, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, and semantics. Holophrasis- the meaning of a word expresses the meaning of a sentence or a complex idea. This phenomenon is present in child language acquisition, when simple “Milk!” means “I want milk!”. Hypercorrection- when speakers of a non-standard variety attempts to use the standard variety and 'go too far', producing a version which does not appear in the standard (e.g. children when acquiring language they apply new learned rule everywhere, which results in the speech errors) Hypernymy- is a semantic relationship between words where one word (the hypernym) has a more general meaning, while the other word (the hyponym) has a more specific meaning. (e.g. animal (hypernym)- dog (hyponym)) Hyponymy- is a word that refers to a more specific concept, while the hypernym is the broader category it belongs to. (e.g. ‘rose’ is a hyponym of ‘flower’) Iconicity in language- refers to a direct relationship between the form of a word and its meaning. Unlike most words, where the connection between sound and meaning is arbitrary, iconic words resemble or suggest their meaning in some way. ​ Onomatopoeia- words that imitate sounds (meow, bang) ​ Reduplication & Prosodic Features- stretching vowels for intensity, size (huuuuuuge monster) ​ Sound Symbolism (Phonoaesthesia)- phonemes that are associated with specific meaning (sn-words associated with breathing, sniff, snore) (element of Peirce’s typology) Icon- when the form-content relation is based on physical resemblance, the sign functions as an icon, meaning it visually resembles what it represents in a way that the human mind can easily recognize. (e.g. restroom signs) (element of Peirce’s typology) Idiolect- is the unique and individual variety of language spoken by a single person. It includes a person’s specific vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and speech patterns, shaped by their personal experiences, social background, and cognitive preferences. I-language- it refers to the internal, mental representation of language in an individual’s mind. (Chomsky, and it relates to competence) Index- is a type of sign where there is a cause-effect relationship between the sign and its meaning. Unlike symbols (which are arbitrary) or icons (which resemble what they represent), an index is directly connected to the thing it signifies. (smoke is an index of fire) (element of Peirce’s typology) Inflectional- is a type of word formation where affixes (prefixes, suffixes, etc.) are added to a word stem, but the core meaning of the word remains unchanged. Instead of creating a new word, inflection modifies grammatical properties such as tense, number, case, mood, aspect, or agreement. (e.g. walk →walks (3rd person singular) Innateness- (also called Linguistic Nativism) proposes that humans are born with an inherent ability to acquire language. This means that at least some aspects of linguistic structure are pre-programmed in our brains rather than learned entirely from experience. The ability to learn language is passed down through genes. Language is an organ that develops (Chomsky). Language branch- refers to a group of languages that are genetically related and share a common ancestor language within a larger language family. Language family- a language family is a larger grouping of related languages. Within each family, there are branches that further break down the languages into more specific categories. Language variety- refers to the different forms or variants of language that exist within a speech community. These varieties are shaped by factors such as geography, social class, education, context, and purpose. (e.g. dialect or accent) Language vs a language- language is the concept of human communication, whereas a language is a particular, specific system of communication used by a group of people. These are distinct, well-defined systems with their own rules of grammar, vocabulary, syntax, etc. (e.g. English, Spanish) La langage- the human capacity for language as a whole. Involves both biological and cognitive abilities that enable speech. (de Saussure) La langue- refers to the abstract, structured system of language that is shared by a community. It is the set of rules and conventions (such as grammar, vocabulary, and syntax) that speakers of a language follow to communicate. (de Saussure) La parole- refers to individual acts of speaking, including the way a person chooses, structures, and pronounces words in communication. It represents personal language use, including speech, writing, and expression. (de Saussure) Lemma- which is indeed the canonical or base form of a word. It is the version of the word you would look up in a dictionary, and it represents all the various forms that word can take (like plural forms, conjugated verbs, etc.). (word ‘run’ is in this form in dictionary even though it can have different forms “runs”, “running”) Lexeme- is the core meaning of a word, which can take on multiple forms based on tense, number, case, etc. (the lexeme “run” includes forms like “runs”, “running”, “runner”) Linguistic fossil- as described by linguist Ray Jackendoff, refers to a fixed, unanalyzable expression that lacks syntax and doesn’t follow the normal rules of sentence structure or grammar. These expressions often emerge early in language development, in specific emotional or social contexts, or through cultural usage. (“Wassat?” as “What’s that?”; also “Wow!” and “Ouch!”) McGurk effect- is a perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates the interaction between auditory and visual information in speech perception. It occurs when a person hears one sound but sees a different lip movement or visual articulation. The brain combines the conflicting auditory and visual stimuli, resulting in the perception of a completely different sound than either the sound or the visual component alone. (we hear ‘ba’ but see ‘ha’ lip movement, so our brain changes this perception) Meaning change- refers to the process through which the meaning of a word or expression evolves over time. This phenomenon occurs naturally in languages as they are used in different social, historical, and cultural contexts. Words can acquire new meanings, lose old ones, or shift in their meanings due to various linguistic, social, or psychological factors.  ​ semantic broadening- This occurs when a word's meaning becomes more general or inclusive than its original sense. (‘dog’ back in the days meant specific type, now it became general term) ​ semantic narrowing- happens when a word's meaning becomes more specific or restricted (‘meat’ meant any food, now we refer to it as a product from animals) ​ semantic shift/drift- refers to when the meaning of a word shifts or changes in a way that doesn’t involve broadening or narrowing (the word awful meant inspiring and now it means terrible) Metalanguage- it’s the language we use to talk about language (in terms of grammar (nouns, verbs), phonetics (nasal, voiceless) or sociolinguistics (dialect, code switching)). Morpheme- the smallest identifiable grammatical unit, or the smallest linguistic unit that has its own meaning. It’s a building block of words, and morphemes cannot be further divided without losing their meaning ​ free morphemes- they can stand alone as a word -​ lexical- core meaning, known as ‘content’ words (e.g. dog, run, idea) -​ functional- grammatical role (e.g. an, under, but, if, because) -​ bound morphemes- these cannot (typically prefixes (-un, -re), suffixes (-ed, -ing) -​ derivational- used to create new words (teach+-er= teacher) or change meaning (un+happy=unhappy) -​ inflectional- used to describe different categories (cat+s=cats (plural)) (walk+ed=walked (past tense)) Morphological reduction- refers to the process by which a morpheme or word undergoes a simplification or loss of parts over time, either in form or structure, while retaining its core meaning. (e.g. gonna, photo) Morphology- is the branch of linguistics that studies the structure of words. It is concerned with how words are formed from smaller meaningful units called morphemes. Non-verbal communication- refers to the transmission of messages or information without the use of spoken or written words. It encompasses a wide range of non-linguistic behaviors and signals. It can be intentional or unintentional. Object- typically refers to a syntactic element in a sentence that is affected by the action of the verb. It is the noun (or noun phrase) that receives the action or is otherwise involved in the process described by the verb. Ogden-Richards triangle for meaning It is a model that explains how words acquire meaning and how they relate to the world and the people who use them. ​ Symbol (word)- this is the linguistic form or signifier (the actual word or symbol used to represent something). It’s what we hear or see when communicating. (e.g. cat) ​ Referent (object)- this is the actual thing or concept that the symbol refers to in the world (or in the mind). It’s the real-world entity or the idea behind the word. (referent of a word “cat” is an actual animal) ​ Thought or Reference- this represents the mental image, concept, or idea that connects the symbol (the word) to the referent (the object or concept). It’s what comes to our mind when we hear or think of a word. (e.g. when we think of cat we picture small animal with whiskers) The symbol (the word) is linked to the referent (the object) through our thought or reference (the mental concept or image we have of the object). This relationship is indirect—there is no direct connection between the symbol (the word) and the referent (the object). Instead, our minds use the concept or mental image to bridge the gap. Onomastics- is the study of names, especially proper names, and their origins, meanings, and usage. It is a branch of linguistics that examines how names are formed, their historical and cultural significance, and the patterns behind their evolution. Performance- the actual acts of speaking, the products of a person's language competence (Chomsky)  Performativity in language- it refers to the idea that language is not just a means of describing reality but can also create or perform actions. (J.L. Austin ‘How to do things with words’) ​ Constative statements: Descriptive sentences that describe facts (e.g., “The sky is blue”). ​ Performative utterances: Sentences that do not just describe something but perform an action by being spoken (e.g., “I now pronounce you husband and wife”). (courts of law, promises) Philology- is the historical study of languages, especially through the comparative analysis of texts. It also studies how languages change over time. Phonetic erosion- refers to the gradual weakening, shortening, or loss of phonetic features in words over time. It can be caused by ease of articulation, frequency of use or connected speech. Phonetics vs phonology ​ Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived, independent of any specific language. It is concerned with the physical properties of sounds. ​ Phonology examines how sounds function and interact within a particular language’s sound system. Focuses on the mental representation and organization of sounds. Phylogenesis and the why of language evolution- refers to the evolutionary development or origins of a species—in this case, the development of language in humans (evolution of homo sapiens). Why? ​ social interaction ​ cognitive development Pidgin- is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between groups of people who do not share a common language. Pragmatic inference- refers to the process by which listeners or readers go beyond the literal meaning of words to interpret the intended meaning of a speaker, often relying on context and shared knowledge. Pragmatics- is a branch of linguistics concerned with how context influences the interpretation of meaning in communication. Pragmatics is concerned with how people use language in social contexts. It looks beyond the words themselves and takes into account who is speaking, to whom, and in what context the communication is taking place. (basically pragmatics is semantics+ context). Presupposition- refers to the background information that is taken for granted or assumed by the speaker and shared with the listener in order for a statement to make sense or be interpreted correctly. Proposition- is the core meaning that a sentence conveys. It's the idea or claim that the sentence is making, which can be evaluated as either true or false. Protolanguage vs proto-language ​ Proto-language- hypothetical ancestor of a language family. (If you can trace the development of a group of languages, you can possibly name its ancestor). ​ Protolanguage- refers to a hypothetical stage in the evolution of human communication, representing an early form of communication that predates fully developed language with complex grammar and syntax. It is a simpler, more primitive form of language, often characterized by a lack of sophisticated grammatical structures, full vocabulary, and syntactic complexity. Recursion- refers to the ability to put one instance of a syntactic category into another instance of the same type. ​ “The cat that chased the dog is tired.” (because the noun phrase (NP) "The cat" is expanded by the addition of a relative clause) Reference- refers to the relationship between linguistic expressions (like words, phrases, or sentences) and the world, specifically the things, concepts, or entities that those expressions are used to talk about. Register- refers to the variation in language used depending on the social context, purpose, or situation in which communication occurs. While register refers to the variety of language used in specific contexts, formality refers specifically to how casual or stiff the language should be, depending on the social setting. ​ formal- used in professional, academic situations (“I am writing to inform you…”) ​ informal- common in everyday conversations between family or friends (this may include slang, colloquialism (“Hey, I just wanted to let you know…”) ​ colloquial- really informal, includes slang and idioms ​ technical- used in specialized fields, like science, law, medicine; jargon and terminology ​ consultative- more neutral but still professional, commonly used in customer service (“ Could you please clarify…”) Roles of sentence constituents (subject, verb, object) ​ subject- is the doer of the action or the entity the sentence is about (typically a noun before verb) ​ verb- is the central element of the sentence that expresses the action or state of being. ​ object- is a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun that receives the action of the verb. Roman Jakobson’s communicative functions of language ​ referential- the referent or content of the message (what is being referred to), to transfer information about the world (“The blue book is mine.”) ​ emotive- the speaker's emotions, feelings, or attitudes (“I couldn’t wait to see you”).  ​ conative- the addressee (the listener), to influence, command, or request something from the listener (“You must see this film”). ​ phatic- the communication channel, to open, maintain, or close communication (small talk) (“Looks like rain again”) ​ metalinguistic- the language itself and its use, to explain or clarify the meaning of a word or phrase (“ ‘Dog’ is a noun”) ​ poetic- the form of the message itself, to focus on how something is said rather than what is said (“Death is the Mother of Beauty”). Saltationism vs gradualism in lg evolution ​ saltationism (from Latin ‘jump’)- language may have emerged suddenly due to a single large mutation or genetic leap that caused a radical change. The saltationist view would emphasize a sudden emergence of language, often connected with a singular, dramatic change. ​ gradualism- suggests that changes happen slowly, over time, through small, incremental mutations. The gradualist view- where language components evolved because they provided certain functions that improved communication, survival, and social organization. Semantics- is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning in language. It focuses on how words, phrases, sentences, and texts communicate meaning, and how meaning is interpreted. Shibboleth- is a term or phrase that is used to distinguish one group of people from another, often based on linguistic, cultural, or social traits. Signifiant- is simply the French equivalent of signifier. The signifier is simply the "form" of a word or symbol — basically, the sound or written word that represents something. Signifie- (French equivalent of the signified). The signified is the concept or meaning that is represented by a word or symbol. It's the idea or mental image you think of when you hear or read a word. Social markers- is a linguistic variable (such as a specific pronunciation, word choice, or grammar rule) that conveys social significance. It indicates information about the speaker's social background, education level, regional origin, or social class, and is often consciously or unconsciously associated with particular groups within a speech community. (e.g. ‘h’ dropping, when ‘hat’ and ‘at’ are pronounced the same way, typically associated with lower class) Sociolect- refers to a language variety or dialect that is associated with a specific social group, rather than a geographic region. It is a form of speech that reflects the social identity, status, or role of its speakers within a society. (e.g. working class sociolect is characterized with usage of slang and ‘h’ dropping) Sociolinguistics- is the study of the relationship between language and society. It focuses on how social factors—such as class, ethnicity, gender, age, and education—affect the way people speak, as well as how language reflects and reinforces social structures and relationships. (study of social markers) Sound change (sound shift laws)- refers to the process by which the pronunciation of words (specifically, the phonemes that make up the words) shifts over time. Grimm's Law (This is one of the most famous examples of sound change, and it explains how the Indo-European consonant system evolved in the Germanic languages). Sources of pressure on lg evolution (environmental and cognitive) ​ cognitive pressures- these pressures stem from the human mind and how it processes and stores information. -communicative pressures- these pressures arise from the social necessity of communication and the shared understanding between individuals. They focus on how language serves its primary function: to allow people to exchange information effectively. -pressure on learnability- refers to how easily and efficiently a language can be acquired by new speakers, particularly children or second-language learners. ​ environmental pressures- these pressures stem from external factors related to geography, culture, and society that impact the way language is used and evolves. Speech perception- aim to explain how humans recognize, understand, and process spoken language ​ Motor theory of speech perception- suggests we perceive speech through articulatory gestures; proposed motor areas of the brain (involved in speech production) are activated when we perceive speech sounds. Stages of development of English + the great vowel shift ​ Old English- Anglo-Saxons ​ Middle English- (“The Canterbury Tales” Chaucer) ​ Early Modern English- Great Vowel Shift (“To be or not to be”) ​ Modern English The Great Vowel Shift- was a major change in the pronunciation of the long vowels of English that occurred during the transition from Middle English to Early Modern English. Vowels in Middle English were more clear and similar to Latin and French and then evaluated to be more complex in Modern English. Structural ambiguity- occurs when a sentence or phrase can be interpreted in more than one way due to its grammatical structure. (e.g. “I saw a man with a telescope”; 1: man was holding telescope, 2: I saw him using telescope) Surface structure- this is the literal form of a sentence as it appears in speech or writing. It’s what you hear or read directly, including word order, phrase structure, and word choice. Symbol- are signs that represent something other than themselves. They are arbitrary and conventional, meaning their meaning is not inherent in their form but is assigned through social or cultural convention. Syntactic change- refers to the evolution or transformation of the sentence structure and grammatical rules in a language over time. It occurs when the rules that govern word order, sentence formation, and other syntactic structures undergo modification within a language, leading to new patterns or structures. Syntactic rules- are the set of guidelines that govern the structure and formation of sentences in a language. These rules determine how words and phrases can be combined to form grammatically correct sentences. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations ​ syntagmatic relations- are horizontal relationships, meaning they describe how words or elements combine together in sequence to form a meaningful structure. It's all about the order of words in a sentence, and how each word in the sentence relates to the words next to it in that particular combination. (e.g. “Paulie is playing the guitar” changing order of the words will not always make sense) ​ paradigmatic relations- are vertical relationships, meaning they operate within groups of words (like nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.). In these relations, words or elements within a category can be substituted for each other. (e.g. “Paulie is playing the guitar” each of the word can be substituted for another one and the sentence will still make sense) Syntax- is the branch of linguistics that studies how words and morphemes are arranged and combined to form larger units, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. It focuses on the rules and patterns that govern the structure of sentences in a language, dictating the order and relationships between different parts of a sentence. T/V distinction- refers to the difference in pronouns used to address people based on factors such as formality, social status, or intimacy. Teaching language to primates & Pullum’s criticism ​ Koko, a gorilla taught sign language ​ Kanzi, a chimp taught to communicate with lexigrams Pullum’s criticism ​ lack of syntax- human language is deeply syntactic, whereas animals (even these above) did not demonstrate a true understanding of these structures ​ lack of spontaneous use of language- Koko’s and Kanzi’s behaviors were trained and imitated ​ absence of grammar Terminal and non-terminal symbols in rewriting ​ terminal- are the basic symbols that appear in the final output of a rewriting system. They are the "building blocks" of the language and cannot be further rewritten or replaced by any other symbols. ​ non-terminal- are used in the rules (or production rules) of a rewriting system. They are placeholders that can be replaced by other symbols (either terminals or other non-terminals) through specific production rules. The faculty of language- refers to the innate, species-specific capacity of humans to acquire language. It is a concept that suggests that language acquisition is an inherent ability that humans are biologically predisposed to develop. The illocutionary act- it refers to the function or purpose behind a speaker’s utterance, specifically what the speaker intends to do by making a statement, request, command, promise, etc. (J.L. Austin) The locutionary act- refers to the act of producing sounds or uttering words in a language. (J.L. Austin) The perlocutionary effect- refers to the effect that an utterance has on the listener or recipient; impact it has on the listener, such as their thoughts, feelings, or actions. (J.L. Austin) The sociolinguistic interview- is a key research method used in sociolinguistics to gather data about how language varies across different social groups, regions, or contexts. The goal is to understand the relationship between social factors (like social class, age, gender, occupation, region) and language use (such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, etc.). (W.Labov) The standard language variety- is a form of a language that is widely accepted as the norm for formal, written, and educated communication. It is typically used in contexts such as literature, media, formal documents, and academic writing. Transformations- refer to operations or rules that allow one to change the structure of a sentence while maintaining its meaning. These transformations involve altering sentence elements, such as moving words or phrases, in a way that creates a grammatically correct and semantically equivalent sentence. Tree structure- are used to depict how words combine into larger units (like phrases and sentences) in a way that reflects their syntactic relationships. Universal grammar- which suggests that the ability to acquire language is innate to humans and that all languages share a common underlying structure. This concept was primarily introduced by Noam Chomsky, who proposed that all humans are born with an inherent understanding of the basic principles of language, which allows them to learn any language to which they are exposed. Well-formedness- a sentence or phrase is considered well-formed if it adheres to the syntactic rules and constraints of the language. Word token- refers to each individual occurrence of a word in a text or speech. It represents a specific instance of a word, whether it is repeated or unique within a given context. So, in counting word tokens, every single appearance of a word is counted, even if the word is used multiple times. Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher and political activist. Responsible for aspects like performance, competence, E-language, I-language. He is also responsible for deep structure, surface structure and is associated with a saltationist perspective. He came up with the innatist hypothesis in case of (child) language acquisition and Universal Grammar, which is a crucial element of this theory. Charles Hockett was an American linguist known for his work in 13 design features of language. Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist, known for concepts like la langue, la langage, and la parole, his work on relations between units. He is the one who broke down signs (signifier, signified). Roman Jakobson was a Russian linguist responsible for communicative functions of language. Adam Kendon His research emphasizes that speech is inherently multimodal, meaning that communication is not limited to just spoken words (sound) but also involves visual elements such as gestures, facial expressions, and body movements. Steven Pinker He supported Noam Chomsky’s theory that language is an innate ability and the idea of Universal Grammar, suggesting that humans are biologically predisposed to acquire language. Ludwig Wittgenstein He argued that meaning is determined by how words are used in everyday life. He introduced the concept of “language games”. It refers to the specific ways language is used within different activities or forms of life. (e.g. giving orders “Pass me the salt”, expressing emotions “I’m in pain”. Unlike others, like Noam Chomsky, Wittgenstein saw language as context-dependent. He argued that language is inherently social, so a private language is impossible. J.L. Austin ​ performativity in language ​ the illocutionary act ​ the locutionary act ​ the perlocutionary act Jacob Grimm He described a systematic phonetic shift that occurred in the transition from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Germanic. This sound shift helped distinguish the Germanic language family (English, German, Dutch, etc.) from other Indo-European languages (Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, etc.). Sir William Jones He saw similarities between Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek, and later proposed that they must have originated from a come ancestral language, later termed Proto-Indo-European. William Labov ​ 4th floor study ​ the sociolinguistic interview Charles Sanders Peirce ​ conventional sign ​ sound symbolism ​ index ​ icon David McNeill ​ beats ​ deictic gestures ​ metaphoric gestures ​ iconic gestures ​ Growth Point Hypothesis- thought and language emerge together as a unit Ray Jackendoff ​ linguistic fossil John Searle typ pracował na bazie austin, sam chuja zrobił