Session 2: Introduction To Linguistics Handout PDF

PROPERTY OF TEACHER KIM REVIEW AND TUTORIAL CENTER Mendez, Cavite, Philippines Business permit no. 1607 series of 2024 SESSION 2: INTRODUCTION TO L...

PROPERTY OF TEACHER KIM REVIEW AND TUTORIAL CENTER Mendez, Cavite, Philippines Business permit no. 1607 series of 2024 SESSION 2: INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Points to remember:  To identify the basic English sentence patterns, consider the verb type.  Obstacles in sound production differentiates consonants from vowels.  There are 44 phonemes in the English language (24 consonant sounds, 20 vowel sounds)  /s/, /z/, /əz/ are sounds that should be included on lessons about pronunciation of plural nouns.  /c̆/= ch , /s̆/= sh, /z/= zh  /ɛ/ = bet, /e/= bait  Allophones= phonetic variations of the same phoneme (ex: t/ such as in top is aspirated, /t/ in stop is released, and /t/ in pot is unreleased)  A voiceless stop is aspirated if it begins a syllable of a stressed vowel. (ex: table, attack, can, paper, space, accordion)  Auxiliary verbs always go with the main verb. Linking verbs can stand alone.  Vowels that come with an “r” sound such as her and stir are called “rhotic vowels”. Stability of Articulation (vowels): A. MONOPHTHONG -single vowel sound in which the positioning of the articulators at both begining and end is fairly fixed and does not glide up or down (ex: bill, bell, pin, keeper, epic) B. DIPHTHONG- two-vowel sound (ex: coin, loud, side) C. TRIPTHONG- three vowel sounds that glide together (ex: hour, fire, player, mower) BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS Micro-linguistics (Theoretical)- studies the nature of language, what it is all about and how it works phonology studies the system of sounds, abstract properties (phonetics) (studies the physical properties of sounds; speech sounds) morphology studies how words are formed syntax focuses on the arrangement of words and phrases to form sentences semantics study of linguistic meaning of words and sentences “conceptual meaning” pragmatics study of language meaning/ use “contextual meaning” Macro-linguistics- language at a broader perspective; concerned with how a language is acquired or how it relates to society as a whole sociolinguistics patterns and variations in language within a society or community; effects of cultural factors psycholinguistics concerned with the processes related to word cognition and learning (language acquisition) computational application of computer science in the analysis of language and speech historical study of language change or change of a group of languages over time (diachronic) comparative comparing languages to establish their similarities and differences structural based on theories and principles that language is composed of structural units such as lexical and syntactic elements biolinguistics aims to explain the evolution and formation of language applied application of language studies in real life, such as in language teaching and learning clinical for speech language pathology developmental development of linguistic ability, esp. children linguistic typology classify languages according to their structural and functional components neurolinguistics studies the relationship between language and the functions of the brain etymology investigates the origins of words, their birth, development, etc. NOTE: For personal use only. Unauthorized distribution will result to forfeiture of enrollment and discontinuance of handout release.  PROPERTY OF TEACHER KIM REVIEW AND TUTORIAL CENTER Mendez, Cavite, Philippines Business permit no. 1607 series of 2024 MORPHEMES (Classifications) A. FREE MORPHEMES - can stand on their own ex: future, adventure, write, create A. 1. Lexical- (content words) contain meaning of the messages -nouns, verbs, modifiers A.2. Functional- words in the sentence that modify meaning -determiners, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, auxiliary B. BOUND MORPHEMES- cannot stand on their own (ex: -ism, -ous, re-, -tion) B.1. inflectional- s, es, ed, en, ing, er, ‘s, est B.2. derivational- ly, un, ness, ful, etc. ROOT vs STEM vs BASE  Root- morph that is not further breakable or analyzable ex: love  Stem- concerned with inflectional morphology ex: lovers  Base- any form to which affixes can be attached ex: love, lover Lexemes- units of lexical meaning which are related with inflections ex: write, writes, writing, written (same lexemes) write, unwritten (different lexemes) WORD FORMATION (Etymology) A. COMPOUNDING- joining of two separate words to produce a single form ex: bookcase, doorknob, wallpaper etc. B. BLENDING- combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term ex: gasohol (gasoline made from alcohol), smurk (smoke, murk), smog, motel (motor, hotel), telecast (television, broadcast), bit (binary, digit), urinalysis (urine, analysis) C. CLIPPING- when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form ex: fax (facsimile), ad (advertisement), bra (brassiere), cab (cabriolet), condo, pub (public house), flu, fan, perm, phone, plane, math, chem etc. D. ACRONYMS- formed from initial letters of a set of other words ex: CD, VCR, laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), zip (zone improvement plan), snafu (situation normal, all fouled up) E. BACKFORMATION- a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type (usually a verb) ex: donation --> donate, babysitter--> babysit, television--> televise F. CONVERSION - a change in function of a word, for example, a noun used as a verb (without reduction) ex: butter (n.), chair (n.) >Butter (v.) the bread. > Chair (v.) the meeting. G. DERIVATION- adding affixes a. Prefixes and suffixes- ex: fatherhood, mislead, disrespectful, foolishness b. infixes- Singabloodypore!, Hallebloodylujah!, Absogoddamlutely! NOTE: For personal use only. Unauthorized distribution will result to forfeiture of enrollment and discontinuance of handout release.  PROPERTY OF TEACHER KIM REVIEW AND TUTORIAL CENTER Mendez, Cavite, Philippines Business permit no. 1607 series of 2024 H. EPONYM- word that comes from the proper name of a person or place; can be based on both real and fictional people and places ex: Boycott (Captain Charles Boycott), Fahrenheit (Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit), Diesel (Rudolf Diesel), Sandwich (John Montagu-Earl of Sandwich) I. COINAGE -invention of totally new terms ex: aspirin, nylon, vaseline, zipper, granola, kleenex, teflon, xerox, Google J. BORROWING- taking over words from other languages croissant (French), dope (Dutch), lilac (Persian), piano (Italian), pretzel (German), sofa (Arabic), tattoo (Tahitian), tycoon (Japanese), yogurt (Turkish), zebra (Bantu) K. CALQUING - loan translation; similar to borrowing but the borrowed word is translated from the original to another language that fits the characteristics of the new word ex: blue blood - sangre azul (Spanish) flea market- marche aux puces (French) free verse- vers libre (French) long time no see- hao jiu bu jian (Chinese) pineapple- pinjappel (Dutch) scapegoat- ez ozel (Hebrew) wisdom tooth - dens sapientiae (Latin) beer garden- Biergarten (German) loanword- Lehnwort (German) commonplace- locus communi (Latin) L. NONCE- created for a single occasion ex: -jabberwock (name of the fabulous monster in Lewis Carrol’s Jabberwocky; invented language, meaningless) -nonsensical (behavior or topsy turvy) -touch-me-not-ishness -witchcraftical LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACHES Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)  Army Method  heavily oriented towards aural and oral exercises  mim-mem (behaviorism and structuralism)  drills Grammar Transtion Method (GTM)  emphasis on grammar and translation  MOTHER TONGUE  not into speaking  exposure to literature Direct Method (DM) / Natural Method  no usage of own language, inductive  drills in listening and speaking, imitation, no memorization  don’t explain-ACT  don’t translate-DEMONSTRATE  ASK  speak naturally Suggestopedia “Learning achieves its maximum success when the mind is relaxed.” Students should feel safe (as if in the womb). NOTE: For personal use only. Unauthorized distribution will result to forfeiture of enrollment and discontinuance of handout release.  PROPERTY OF TEACHER KIM REVIEW AND TUTORIAL CENTER Mendez, Cavite, Philippines Business permit no. 1607 series of 2024 2 methods: a. desuggestion -> removing affective filter b. suggestion -> addition of facilitating memory (ex: music) Community (or Collaborative) Language Learning (CLL)  Teachers are counselors & paraphrasers  group dynamics  Ask in L1, answer in L2  negative effect: Ringelmann Effect Silent Way  use of color rods (Cuisenaire Rods)  purpose: develop self-awareness and discovery  using physical objects  Discovery learning Total Physical Response (TPR) Children listen a lot + physical response instructor = director; students= actors Natural Approach “Silent period” (listening only) until children are ready to speak. Situational Language Teaching (SLT)  “Oral Approach”  English teaching in terms of providing vocabularies and sentence patterns with their frequent situations through learning materials  accurate pronunciation and grammar to respond quickly  Mistakes are banned. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) a lesson or unit is designed to help learners to complete a task: for example; write a letter, make a reservation, plan a trip, collaborate to design something, or hold a meeting MORPHOPHONEMIC PROCESSES A.METATHESIS - put in a different order ex: tragedy ►tradegy anemone ►anenome B. EPENTHESIS - (or “Intrusion”) insertion of a vowel ex: strike ►suturaiku C. DELETION - (or “Ellision”) deletion of unaccented vowels ex: believe ►/b’liv/ suppose ► /s’poz/ D. ASSIMILATION - phonemes change to become more similar to surrounding sounds ex: handbag ►/haem-bag/ E. DISSIMILATION - change to become less similar to surrounding sounds ex: fifth ►/fift/ NOTE: For personal use only. Unauthorized distribution will result to forfeiture of enrollment and discontinuance of handout release.  PROPERTY OF TEACHER KIM REVIEW AND TUTORIAL CENTER Mendez, Cavite, Philippines Business permit no. 1607 series of 2024 LANGUAGE VIEWS A. Structuralists -Language, as a system, posseses a structure that governs the aspects of every element of a whole. -Focuses on the students’ mastery of the codes and systems of language -consistencies, patterns and rules -language is best described in terms of verifiable and observable data B. Transformationalists -Language is a generative and creative process. -Humans are naturally inventive, allowing them to creatively produce new combinations of words. -language can be manifested in linguistic forms which are innate and universal Chomsky (1980): “Human language is a system for free expression of thought, essentially independent of stimulus control, need-satisfaction or instrumental purpose.” C. Functionalists -Language is an instrument for communication and a vehicle for expression. -Structures can be best analyzed when referred to the functions they carry-out in a communicative context. Michael Halliday: “Language potentially creates not only meaning but also society, which is fully achieved when it is used in functional communication.” D. Interactionists -Language is a product of human desire to communicate with another. Vgotsky: “Language is developed through social interaction.”, “Language plays a critical role in the child’s cognitive development.”, “Communication is the primary purpose of language”. Bruner: “Language is a symbolic illustration of a person’s intellectual development.” Saussure’s Theory: Langue vs Parole Nature of Language a. Language is something learned. b. Language is related to the culture of society. c. Language is species-specific, uniformed, and unique to humans. d. Language is a system of systems. e. Language is primarily vocal. f. Language is a skill subject. g. Language is arbitrary. NOTE: For personal use only. Unauthorized distribution will result to forfeiture of enrollment and discontinuance of handout release.  PROPERTY OF TEACHER KIM REVIEW AND TUTORIAL CENTER Mendez, Cavite, Philippines Business permit no. 1607 series of 2024 CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE a. Conventional and non-instinctive b. Productivity and Creativity c. Duality d. Displacement e. Humanness f. Universality GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE A. INTERPERSONAL- fulfills human needs to exchange experiences (ex: “Let’s talk.”, “Come with me”) B. INFORMATIVE- Language is a packet of information. C. PERFORMATIVE- communicate intent or report an action (ex: “I do.”, “I apologize.”) D. EXPRESSIVE- express oneself (ex: “That’s great!”, “You are such a happy pill.”) JAKOBSON’S FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE A. REFERENTIAL (CONTEXT) -describes a situation or an object B. EMOTIVE (SENDER)- focuses on the sender or how the sender feels C. CONATIVE (RECEIVER)- used when the speaker expresses purposively to persuade or influence the receiver D. PHATIC (CHANNEL)- establishes, suspends, or maintains the channel E. METALINGUAL (CODE)- “reflexive” ex: Sky has three letters. F. POETIC (MESSAGE)- descriptive language to create a picture in the mind HALLIDAY’S FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE HALLIDAY’S METAFUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE A. IDEATIONAL experiential logical B. INTERPERSONAL C. TEXTUAL HALLIDAY’S MICRO-FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE INSTRUMENTAL- using language to express needs, desires, preferences, choices REGULATORY- demanding attention, controlling, influencing people INTERACTIONAL- to develop relationships and smooth interactions PERSONAL- convey emotions, attitudes, and identity HEURISTIC- to learn new things and gain knowledge IMAGINATIVE- get into the world of fantasy REPRESENTATIONAL- convey facts, explain ideas and observations NOTE: For personal use only. Unauthorized distribution will result to forfeiture of enrollment and discontinuance of handout release.  PROPERTY OF TEACHER KIM REVIEW AND TUTORIAL CENTER Mendez, Cavite, Philippines Business permit no. 1607 series of 2024 Monitor Model Theory [Stephen Krashen] A. Acquisition-learning hypothesis According to Krashen, acquisition > learning. Learning only serves as a monitor or editor, while the former is responsible for the fluent production of sounds and utterances. B. Natural Order Hypothesis- Language is learned in a predictable pattern. C. Monitor Hypothesis- Learned competence functions as a monitor, editing or self-correcting our language input. Krashen warned that the ‘monitor’ can be a barrier. D. Input Hypothesis- Students have to be exposed to comprehensible (i+1) inputs or those that are a little beyond their current language ability. E. Affective Filter Hypothesis- When the filter is high, the self-confidence is low and the lower the chance for input to be taken in. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE MODEL (Dell Hymes, expounded by Canale and Swain) A. Grammatical/ Linguistic- mastery of the language code B. Sociolinguistic- appropriateness of utterances C. Discourse- mastery of producing coherent and cohesive language outputs D. Strategic- learner’s ability to solve communication issues CO-OPERATIVE PRINCIPLE [Paul Grice] “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you engaged.” A. QUANTITY - informative but no more, no less B. QUALITY - truthfulness C. RELATION - relevance D. MANNER - clear, brief, orderly Gradable pairs- a spectrum where something can be “more or less” of a trait Modalities: A. Analytic- always true B. Contradictory- always false C. Synthetic- can be true or false Hedges- linguistic device used to express uncertainty, caution, or probability in a sentence (cautious speech) deixis- pointing language Periodic sentence- It begins with phrases or dependent clauses and ends with the main independent clause. Ex: After popping several balloons, the parents revealed the baby’s gender. Suprasegmental phonology- prosodic features, involves stress, timing, and intonation. NOTE: For personal use only. Unauthorized distribution will result to forfeiture of enrollment and discontinuance of handout release.