PSYC 457 Industrial Psychology PDF

PSYC 457 Industrial Psychology  Overview There are several subfields of psychology. One of them is concerned with: the study and application of psychological principles, theories and methods, in work settings. This subfield is called different name...

PSYC 457 Industrial Psychology  Overview There are several subfields of psychology. One of them is concerned with: the study and application of psychological principles, theories and methods, in work settings. This subfield is called different names, depending on where it is studied/applied PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 2  Objectives By the end of this course, it is expected that students will be able to: Explain the rationale for applying psychology to work Adopt strategies necessary for studying and understanding human behaviour in the workplace using theories, principles and methods of psychology Explain the key areas of I-O psychology discussed in class PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 3 Topics Introduction to I-O psychology Overview, History, Scope and Definition Why study I-O psychology Opportunities & Challenges in studying I-O psychology The Mandate of I-O psychology Vs Human Resources Management (HRM) Sub-fields of I/O psychology The “I” and the “O” Humanitarian Work Psychology PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 5 Predicting Performance: Recruitment, Selection & Placement Some Reasons for predicting performance Validation Selection Process & Procedures PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 6 Job Analysis Background Purposes for Job Analysis Some Methods of collecting Job Analysis information PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 7 Human Resource Training & Development Why the need for employee training in Organisations? Pre-Training: Assessing Training Needs Training forms and methods Transfer of Training (Transfer of Learning) Post-training: Evaluating Training Programmes PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 8 Performance Management & Appraisal Definition and Distinction: Performance Management & Appraisal The Benefits/Uses of Performance Appraisals Methods and Procedures of Performance Appraisal Judgemental Evaluations and Rating Errors Rater Training & Motivation Feedback of Appraisal Information to employees PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 9  Reading List Carr, S. C., MacLachlan, M. & Furnham, A. (2012). Humanitarian Work Psychology (2012). Palgrave Macmillan) Lowenberg, C. & Conrad, K. A. (1998). Current perspectives in Industrial /Organisational Psychology. Allyn & Bacon. Levy, P. E. (2013). Industrial/Organizational Psychology: Understanding the workplace (4th Edition). New York: Worth Publishers. Muchinsky, P. M (2012). Psychology Applied to Work: An Introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Tenth Edition. Olson-Buchanan, J., Bryan, L. K. & Thompson, L. F. (2013). Using Industrial-Organizational Psychology for the Greater Good: Helping Those Who Help Others. (The Organizational Frontier Series, A Publication of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology). Any other current book/article on the topics could be consulted. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 10  Course Requirements, Assessment & Grading Proper online course registration Attend lectures and actively participate Read ahead of the class using the course outline as a guide Should have read some psychology Mid-semester examination: 30% End-of-semester examination: 70% Practitioner(s) Visit(s) !! PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 11 Definitions… I-O psychology as a course of study: The scientific study of work and workers both in and outside the context of formal organizational settings. E.g. organisational settings, entrepreneurs, corporations, NGOs, etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 12 Other Definitions Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology is the scientific study of the workplace. The application of research that improves the well- being and performance or people ant the organisations that employ them. An area of scientific study and professional practice that addresses psychological concepts and principles in the world of work (Muchinsky, 2012) The application of psychological principles and theories to the workplace (Levy, 2012) PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 13  I/O psychology (cont) As a Practice: It applies the science of psychology to the workplace. Deals with development/discovery of scientific psychological principles at work I-O psychologists typically work to improve: 1. Individual worker performance; Individual worker satisfaction and well-being; 2. Organizational effectiveness OR Efficiency/productivity of organizations PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 14  Specific Areas Of Concern Recruiting and selecting employees for jobs Training employees Assessing and managing performance Defining and analyzing jobs Determining how people feel about work Determining why people act as they do at work Effects work has on people Effects people have on one another How organizations are structured and function Designing work Designing tools and equipment Employee Health and Safety PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 15 The “I” and the “O” sides The two major sides of I-O psychology The Industrial side: looks at strategies to best match individuals to specific job roles. (sometimes referred to as personnel psychology). Involves assessing employee characteristics (KSAOs), matching these individuals to jobs in which they are likely to perform well. Training employees, developing job performance standards, and measuring job performance. Why??????????? PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 16  Individual Differences!! KSAOs Knowledge – collection of discrete but related facts Skills – proficiency to perform a task or group of tasks; usually improves with practice and training Abilities – a relatively enduring attribute that reflects an individual’s capability for performing a particular category of tasks. Other personal characteristics Personality – enduring behavioral patterns Interests & Values – personal preferences and norms PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 17  The Organizational side: more focused on understanding how organizations affect individual behaviour: Organizational behaviour, organisational structures, social norms, motivation, group processes at work, management styles, and role expectations are all factors that can influence how people behavior within an organization. To be discussed in detail (Next Semester). PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 18  Note: I/O psychologists hope to systematically improve individual performance and health …and at the same time tie this to effectiveness and efficiency in the organisation as a whole PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 19 Requirement for Professional I/O Psychologist Graduate degree Internship, practicum necessary (MA or Ph.D.) Entry requirements very Content of graduate competitive training Employment Basic psychology Little or no Research methods unemployment (?!!? (heavy emphasis) Where?) in Ghana? I/O content YES!!! Thesis, Dissertation Academic and nonacademic market Qualifying exam (in strong some jurisdictions) Field expanding and becoming popular PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 20  Join Professional bodies APA: American Psychological Association SIOP: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Division 14 of APA) GOHWP: Global Organisation for Humanitarian Work Psychology BPS: British Psychological Society GPA: Ghana Psychological Association Each has slots for student membership ! PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 21  History of I/O Began early 1900s World War I: first mass testing Between wars I & II: psychology helping business: The “I” side Hawthorne studies impact of social aspects: The “O” side World War II: Psychology and the war effort Civil rights movement: Job relevance Technological change PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 22 Leading Historical Figures Hugo Münsterberg: Psychology and Industrial Efficiency Walter Dill Scott: The Theory of Advertising Frederick Winslow Taylor: Scientific Management Robert Yerkes: Army Alpha and Beta tests Lillian Gilbreth: Time and motion; Human factors Bruce V. Moore: First I/O PhD? Roethlisberger & Dickson: Hawthorne Studies PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 23  Opportunities/Challenges for I-O Field Rapidly growing New areas/topics Attracting more graduate students More graduate programs More psychologists in the world Job market strong: Academic and applied Area of psychology making an impact on the world Relevant to anyone who works Interdisciplinary connections Business, engineering, health fields, other areas of psychology PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 24  Therefore: There is the need for I-O psychologists to be: … versatile, strategic, and ready to learn… … and be very professionals!! PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 25 Why study I-O Psychology Psychology: science of human behavior I/O psychology: the science of human behavior at work Dual focus Efficiency/productivity of organizations Health/well-being of employees Dual nature Application of the science of psychology to the workplace Development/discovery of scientific psychological principles at work PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 26  The Mandate of I-O vs that of Human Resources Management I-O and HRM are interrelated, sometimes overlap but NOT the same!!?! NEVER !! I-O’s mandate: to increase the fit between workforce and workplace, using principles of psychology. The world is changing very fast !!!! More people seeking employment PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 27 I-O’s Mandate Workforce is Changing More women in jobs now than previously Part-time, full-time, Dual-income couples, etc. Jobs in service industry Jobs requiring computer literacy and proficiency with electronic communication Telecommuting Simply, work assumes a central role in people’s lives, and business now conducted on global scale. Need I-O’s to help !!! PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 28 I-O and Human Resources Management (HRM) HRM is becoming an important and popular area within I-O psychology. Similarities: Work with people: selection, employment relations, etc Participate in decisions affecting staffing in orgs. Eg training, compensation, performance appraisal, etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 29 I-O psychology vs HRM Differences: What are the differences? Assignment: Compare and contrast the roles of an HR Manager and an I-O psychologist. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 30 Current Issues in I-O Psychology Leadership Work-life issues development and Retirement ethical leadership Teleworking/telecom Talent Management muting Change Cross-cultural issues management and increasing Culture diversity transformation Globalisation Compensation and Humanitarian work benefits and voluntarism PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 31  Humanitarian Work Psychology BROAD THEMES: (HWP) I. Traditionally, I-O psychology focuses nearly exclusively on: A. Organizational effectiveness (turnover, absences, bottom-line measures, etc.) B. Individual well-being (e.g. job satisfaction, employee health, etc) …to the detriment of considering broader levels of analysis, such as societal well-being. II. However, in recent times, there is increased interest in “prosocial” considerations A. EAWOP 2011 – Decent Work and Beyond: Work & Organizational Psychology’s Contribution to Society B. Int. Congress of Psychology (ICP) 2012 - Psychology Serving Humanity C. Academy of Management 2010 – Dare to Care D. Global Organisation for Humanitarian Work Psychology PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 32  Humanitarian Work Psychology (HWP) Some key areas: Relevance of I-O psychology to societal well-being in the corporate world Corporate social responsibility (CSR) Promoting diversity in organisations, etc I-O psychology in the nonprofit domain Recruitment, retention, motivation of volunteers Challenges of staffing and managing voluntary workers Non-Traditional Domains Poverty reduction Assessing and placing disaster relief volunteers Improving the plight of women in developing countries PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 33  Topics/Subfields of I-O psychology Selection and Placement Human Relations Occupational Health and Organisational Safety Behvaiour Consumer Behaviour Group Dynamics Training and Development Organisational Counterproductive work Development behaviour Organisational Change Motivation, Commitment Stress Job satisfaction PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 34 Predicting Performance: Recruitment, Selection & Placement PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 35 Overview There are different roles to be played by different people in order to achieve the overall objectives of organizations. To achieve this, I–O psychologists typically work with HR specialists to design: (a) Recruitment processes; and (b) Personnel selection systems. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 36  Recruitment & Selection Recruitment: The process of professionally identifying candidates who are qualified to work and getting them to apply for available jobs in an organization. The process of attracting individuals in sufficient numbers with the right skills and at appropriate times to apply for open positions within the organization. E.g. developing job announcements, advertising the position(s), defining key qualifications for applicants, and short-listing qualified applicants which leads to screening out candidates who do not qualified. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 37  Three Main Functions of Recruitment Process are: To help identify and attract sizeable and suitable pool of talent Deter unsuitable candidates from applying Create a positive image of the organization PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 38 Internal Recruitment Vs. External Recruitment  Recruitment from Inside Advantages Disadvantages  Career plan for existing workers &  Existing employees may not bring-in new ideas morale to their new job (inbreeding).  Motivator for good performance  Lower level employees may not have capacities required at higher jobs.  Relatively easier assessment of applicants as information is available  High-powered employees might not be able to wait long enough for their turn (“political”  Reduced recruitment costs (travel infighting for promotions). expenses)  Internal strife for the post might impact  Causes succession of promotions negatively on possibilities for team work  Have to hire only at entry level. among existing employees.  Need for management development program  Recruitment from Outside Advantages Disadvantages  Larger pool of talent.  Relatively higher costs.  Objectivity and extensive effort put into the process likely to lead to a better candidate  Risky of getting the wrong person. selection.  May cause morale problems for  New industry insights, ideas, way of thinking internal candidates not selected. & approaches might challenge existing norms and act as catalyst in continuous improvement/ innovation.  Cheaper and faster than training professionals.  No group of political supporters in organization already.  Sourcing Channels External Internal Recruitment methods Advertisement Placement Agencies Job Posting Skills Data Base Internships Employee Referrals by Other Job Sites Departments E-Recruiting Campus Data Base Alumni Associations/Interest Groups/ Networks Temporary Leasing Employee Referrals Passive Recruiting (Unsolicited application) Career Fairs Recruitment & Selection Selection the systematic process of professionally hiring and promoting personnel, and rejecting those who don’t qualify. Selection systems usually use evidence-based practices to determine the most qualified candidates, the good match for the job(s). It involves both the newly hired and individuals already working in the organisation, who can be promoted PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 43  Selection The process of assessing candidates and appointing a post holder Applicants short listed – most suitable candidates selected Selection process – varies according to organisation. Selection Principles Underlying the process of selection and the choice of techniques are two key principles: 1. Individual differences: Attracting a wide choice of applicants will be of little use unless there is a way of measuring how people differ, i.e. intelligence, attitudes, social skills, psychological and physical characteristics, experience etc. 2. Prediction: A recognition of the way in which people differ must be extended to a prediction of performance in the workplace. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 45 Some Reasons for predicting performance 1. For planning purposes 2. Different positions to be filled PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 46 Observations… Recruitment and selection are vital to the formation of a positive psychological contract, which provides the basis of organizational commitment and motivation. The attraction and retention of employees is part of the evolving employment relationship, based on a mutual and reciprocal understanding of expectations. There are wide variations in recruitment and selection practices, reflecting an organization’s strategy and its philosophy towards the management of people. Progressive HR practices are crucial to a positive psychological contract – this includes attention to effective recruitment and selection practices. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 47  Recruitment Strategy Recruitment strategy should answer the following questions related to their target populations: 1. Who is being targeted through the recruitment? 2. Where is the appropriate place to recruit clients? 3. When should recruitment be done? 4. What messages should be delivered during recruitment? 5. How should the messages be delivered? 6. Who is the most appropriate person to do recruitment? PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 48 Some terminologies Realistic Job Preview (RJP) Validity Reliability Criterion Predictors PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 49 Realistic Job Previews Applicants have expectations about how the organization will treat them. Recruitment and selection represent an opportunity to clarify these. Realistic job previews (RJPs) provide a means of achieving this. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 50  Realistic Job Previews RJPs can take several forms: case studies, job sampling, videos, etc. to enable the expectations of applicants to become more realistic. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 51  Realistic Job Previews What happens in situations where there is effective RJPs? RJPs will help eventually to: lower initial expectations cause some applicants to de-select themselves increase levels of organization commitment, job satisfaction, performance and job survival. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 52  Considerations in the Choice of Selection Techniques Predictors – Validity – Reliability Criteria Selection decisions in organizations are generally made on the basis of job applicants' predictor scores on various tests. These tests predict how well applicants, if hired, will perform on the job. – The usefulness of predictors depend on their reliability and validity Basic Testing Concepts--Validity Test validity answers the question: "Does this test measure what it's supposed to measure?” Whether the performance on the test is a valid predictor of subsequent performance on the job? There are two main ways to demonstrate a test's validity, criterion validity and content validity. – Criterion validity -- A type of validity based on showing that scores on the test (predictors) are related to job performance (criterion). – Content validity -- A test that is content valid is one in which the test contains a fair sample of the tasks and skills actually needed for the job in question.  Basic Testing Concepts--Reliability The extent to which a selection instrument measures consistently under varying conditions A standard for evaluating tests that refers to the consistency, stability or equivalence of test scores. Reliability technically refers to “Free from errors of measurement” PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 55  Personnel Selection Methods Interview – most common method Psychometric testing – assessing the personality of the applicants – Measures of personality Honesty test (substitute to polygraph) Aptitude testing – assessing the skills of applicants Measures of proficiency, achievement, or knowledge Measures of mental ability or intelligence Work samples Presentation – looking for different skills as well as the ideas of the candidate Assessment Centres – battery of tests  Assessment Centers What it means: A technique for assessing job candidates in specific location using a series of structured, group-oriented exercises that are evaluated by raters. – In a two- to three-day management assessment center 6 to 12 management candidates perform realistic management tasks (like making presentations) under the observation of expert appraisers; each candidate’s management potential is thereby assessed or appraised.  Assessment Centers In-basket exercise – Realistic situations and problems encountered on the job are written on individual sheets of paper and set in the in-basket. The applicant is then asked to arrange the papers by priority. Occasionally, the applicant may need to write an action response. The problems or situations described to the applicant involve different groups of people--peers, subordinates, and those outside the organization. The applicant is usually given a set time limit to take the test and is often interrupted by phone calls meant to create more tension and pressure.  Assessment Centers The leaderless group discussion. A leaderless group is given a discussion question and told to arrive at a group decision. The raters then evaluate each group member's interpersonal skills, acceptance by the group, leadership ability, and individual influence.  Assessment Centers Management games. – Participants engage in realistic problem solving, usually as members of two or more simulated companies that are competing in the marketplace. The interview. – The participants’ current interests, background, past performance, and motivation are assessed.  Work Samples Also called performance tests: Test the ability to do something rather than the ability to know something. The basic procedure of work sample tests is to – choose several tasks crucial to performing the job in question; and – test applicants on each task. Situational Judgement Tests Situational Judgement Tests: a method to assess applicants’ judgement regarding situations where hypothetical work-based scenarios are presented to applicants, who make judgements about possible response, and these responses are then assessed against a predetermined scoring key, PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology 62  Choice of Selection Methods Number of applicants Criticality of position Cost/effort involved Predictive validity Extent of preparation required  Summary Recruitment involves searching for and obtaining qualified job candidates in such numbers that the organization can select the most appropriate person to fill its job needs. Selection is the process of gathering legally defensible information about job applicants in order to determine who should be hired for long- or short-term positions. Placement is concerned with matching individual skills, knowledge, abilities, preferences, interests, and personality to a job. Read pages 201-211:  The impact of selection procedures on applicants The use of technology in selection Lectures 1 & 2 Definitions… I-O psychology as a course of study: The scientific study of work and workers both in and outside the context of formal organizational settings. E.g. organisational settings, entrepreneurs, corporations, NGOs, etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Other Definitions Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology is the scientific study of the workplace. The application of research that improves the well- being and performance of people and the organisations that employ them. An area of scientific study and professional practice that addresses psychological concepts and principles in the world of work (Muchinsky, 2012) The application of psychological principles and theories to the workplace (Levy, 2012) PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Practicing I/O psychology As a Practice: It applies the science of psychology to the workplace. Deals with development/discovery of scientific psychological principles at work I-O psychologists typically work to improve: 1. Individual worker performance; Individual worker satisfaction and well-being; 2. Organizational effectiveness OR Efficiency/productivity of organizations PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Individual Differences!! People differ in many ways, especially along KSAOs Knowledge – collection of discrete but related facts; what one needs to know to do a job Skills – what one is able to do on the job; proficiency to perform a task or group of tasks; usually improves with practice and training Abilities – a person’s aptitude or capability to do job tasks or learn to do job tasks; a person’s potential to develop skills. Other personal characteristics Personality – enduring behavioral patterns Interests & Values – personal preferences and norms PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Note: I/O psychologists hope to systematically improve individual performance and health …and at the same time tie this to effectiveness and efficiency in the organisation as a whole PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Requirement for Professional I/O Psychologist Graduate degree necessary (MA or Ph.D.) Content of graduate training Basic psychology Research methods (heavy emphasis) I/O content Thesis, Dissertation Qualifying exam (in some jurisdictions) Internship, practicum Entry requirements very competitive PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Join Professional bodies APA: American Psychological Association SIOP: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Division 14 of APA) GOHWP: Global Organisation for Humanitarian Work Psychology BPS: British Psychological Society GPA: Ghana Psychological Association Each has slots for student membership ! PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology History of I/O Began early 1900s World War I: first mass testing Between wars I & II: psychology helping business: The “I” side Hawthorne studies impact of social aspects: The “O” side World War II: Psychology and the war effort Civil rights movement: Job relevance Technological change PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Leading Historical Figures Hugo Münsterberg: Psychology and Industrial Efficiency Walter Dill Scott: The Theory of Advertising Frederick Winslow Taylor: Scientific Management Robert Yerkes: Army Alpha and Beta tests Lillian Gilbreth: Time and motion; Human factors Bruce V. Moore: First I/O PhD? Roethlisberger & Dickson: Hawthorne Studies PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Opportunities/Challenges for I-O Field Rapidly growing New areas/topics Attracting more graduate students More graduate programs More psychologists in the world Job market strong: Academic and applied Area of psychology making an impact on the world Relevant to anyone who works Interdisciplinary connections Business, engineering, health fields, other areas of psychology PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Where Do I-O Psychologists work? Teaching & Research in academic institutions In psychology Dep’ts and business schools Research in public and private sector Consulting Firms: Applying psychology to workplace Human resource dept’s in organisations such as banks, telecom firms, consumer product industries Serving the nation in security services: Military, police, immigration, etc Humanitarian services: UN, NGOs, etc Etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  What do I-O Psychologists Do? Recruiting and selecting employees for jobs Training and developing employees Assessing and managing performance Defining and analyzing jobs Determining how people feel about work (Job Satisfaction, Org Commitment, etc) Determining why people act as they do at work Effects work has on people Effects people have on one another Examine how organizations are structured and function Designing work Designing tools and equipment Employee Health and Safety PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Therefore: There is the need for I-O psychologists to be: … versatile, strategic, and ready to learn… … and be very professional !! PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology I-O and Human Resources Management (HRM) HRM is an important and popular area within I-O psychology. Similarities: Work with people: selection, employment relations, etc Participate in decisions affecting staffing in orgs. Eg training, compensation, performance appraisal, etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology I-O psychology vs HRM Differences: What are the differences? Assignment: Compare and contrast the roles of an HR Manager and an I-O psychologist. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Humanitarian BROAD THEMES: Work Psychology (HWP) I. Traditionally, I-O psychology focuses nearly exclusively on: A. Organizational effectiveness (turnover, absences, bottom-line measures, etc.) B. Individual well-being (e.g. job satisfaction, employee health, etc) …to the detriment of considering broader levels of analysis, such as societal well-being. II. However, in recent times, there is increased interest in “prosocial” considerations A. Int. Congress of Psychology (ICP) 2012 - Psychology Serving Humanity B. Global Organisation for Humanitarian Work Psychology PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Humanitarian Work Psychology (HWP) Some key areas: Relevance of I-O psychology to societal well-being in the corporate world Corporate social responsibility (CSR) Promoting diversity in organisations, etc I-O psychology in the nonprofit domain Recruitment, retention, motivation of volunteers Challenges of staffing and managing voluntary workers Non-Traditional Domains Poverty reduction Assessing and placing disaster relief volunteers Improving the plight of women in developing countries PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Topics/Subfields of I-O psychology Job Analysis Human Relations Selection and Placement Organisational Behvaiour Occupational Health and Performance Appraisal Safety Group Dynamics Consumer Behaviour Organisational Development Training and Development Organisational Change Counterproductive work Stress Management behaviour Job satisfaction Motivation, Commitment etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology The “I” and the “O” sides The two major sides of I-O psychology The Industrial side: looks at strategies to best match individuals to specific job roles. (sometimes referred to as personnel psychology). Involves assessing employee characteristics (KSAOs), selecting and matching these individuals to jobs in which they are likely to perform well. Training employees, developing job performance standards, and measuring job performance. Why??????????? PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology The “I” and the “O” sides The Organizational side: more focused on understanding how organizations affect individual behaviour: Organizational behaviour, organisational structures, social norms, motivation, group processes at work, management styles, and role expectations are all factors that can influence how people behavior within an organization. To be discussed in detail (Next Semester). PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Lectures 3, 4, 5 & 6 Predicting Performance: Recruitment, Selection & Placement Overview There are different roles to be played by different people in order to achieve the overall objectives of organizations. To achieve this, I–O psychologists typically work to design: (a) Recruitment processes; and (b) Personnel selection systems. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Recruitment & Selection Recruitment: The process of attracting individuals in sufficient numbers with the right skills and at appropriate times to apply for open positions within the organization. E.g. developing job announcements, advertising the position(s), defining key qualifications for applicants, and short-listing qualified applicants which leads to screening out candidates who do not qualified. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Three Main Functions of Recruitment Process are: To help identify and attract sizeable and suitable pool of talent Deter unsuitable candidates from applying Create a positive image of the organization PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Internal Recruitment Vs. External Recruitment PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Recruitment from Inside Advantages Disadvantages  Career plan for existing workers &  Existing employees may not bring-in new ideas morale to their new job (inbreeding).  Motivator for good performance  Lower level employees may not have capacities required at higher jobs.  Relatively easier assessment of applicants as information is available  High-powered employees might not be able to wait long enough for their turn (“political”  Reduced recruitment costs (travel infighting for promotions). expenses)  Internal strife for the post might impact  Causes succession of promotions negatively on team work.  Have to hire only at entry level. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Recruitment from Outside Advantages Disadvantages  Larger pool of talent.  Relatively higher costs.  Objectivity and extensive effort put into the process likely to lead to a better candidate  Risky of getting the wrong person. selection.  May cause morale problems for  New industry insights, ideas, way of thinking internal candidates not selected. & approaches might challenge existing norms and act as catalyst in continuous improvement/ innovation.  Cheaper and faster than training professionals.  No group of political supporters in organization already. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Sourcing Channels External Internal Advertisement Recruitment methods Placement Agencies Internships Job Posting Job Sites Skills Data Base E-Recruiting Employee Referrals by Other Campus Departments Data Base Alumni Associations/Interest Groups/ Networks Temporary Leasing Employee Referrals Passive Recruiting (Unsolicited application) Career Fairs PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Recruitment & Selection Selection the systematic process of professionally hiring and promoting personnel, and rejecting those who don’t qualify. Selection systems usually use evidence-based practices to determine the most qualified candidates, the good match for the job(s). It involves both the newly hired and individuals already working in the organisation, who can be promoted PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Some terminologies Realistic Job Preview (RJP) Psychometric Requirements Validity Reliability Criterion Predictors Validation PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Realistic Job Previews Recruitment and selection present an opportunity to clarify applicants’ expectations RJPs can take several forms: case studies, job sampling, videos, etc. to enable the expectations of applicants to become more realistic. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Realistic Job Previews What happens in situations where there is effective RJPs? RJPs will help eventually to: lower initial expectations cause some applicants to de-select themselves increase levels of organization commitment, job satisfaction, performance and job survival. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Psychometric Properties of Tests The basic requirement for any instrument that is used to measure individual differences are the consistency, stability and accuracy of scores. The technical terms for describing these are: – Psychometric requirements/properties, namely: – Validity – Reliability PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Validity Test validity: This refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it’s designed to measure, and how well it measures it. There are two main ways to demonstrate a test's validity, criterion validity and content validity. – Criterion validity -- A type of validity based on showing that scores on the test (predictors) are related to job performance (criterion). – Content validity – It shows that the test contains a fair sample of the tasks and skills actually needed for the job in question. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Reliability The extent to which a selection instrument measures consistently under varying conditions A standard for evaluating tests that refers to the consistency, stability or equivalence of test scores. Reliability technically refers to “Free from errors of measurement” It refers to dependability and repeatability of test scores. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Predictor and Criterion The process of prediction at work is based on the relationship that exists between an instrument that is used for prediction and the job behaviour. A predictor is used in forecasting job behaviour. Eg, interviews, psychological tests, questionnaires, etc So one can talk about predictor score (eg score on interviews, test, etc) likely to tell whether a person can do well on the job or not. The Criterion : job behaviours being forecasted. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Validation of Selection Instrument This is the process of providing evidence that a selection procedure (testing, interviewing, etc) is related to subsequent work behaviours/performance or criterion. It is about establishing relationship between predictor and criterion PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Selection Ratio and Base Rate Selection Ratio Base Rate PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Placement Placement is concerned with matching individual skills, knowledge, abilities, preferences, interests, and personality to a job. Usually done when employed, or already within the organisation PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Personnel Selection Methods (See McKenna, 2012) Selection Interview – most common method Structured Interviews Unstructured Interviews Semi-Structured Interviews (each has its own advantages and disadvantages) Strengths of Selection Interviews…… Weaknesses of Selection Interviews……. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Psychometric tests They are used in personnel selection to predict performance based on psychological characteristics Can be divided into 2 categories: Personality Tests (eg 16PF, etc) Cognitive Tests (general intelligence, numerical ability, etc) PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Work Samples Also called performance tests: Test the ability to do something rather than the ability to know something. The basic procedure of work sample tests is to – choose several tasks crucial to performing the job in question; and – test applicants on each task. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Assessment Centers What it means: One of the technique for assessing candidates for employment using many different methods, including interviews, in-tray (or in-basket) exercises, psychological tests, written tasks, group discussions, etc. With this, candidates are observed carrying out a variety of assignments either as individuals, or as part of a group. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Assessment Centers In a two- to three-day management assessment center 6 to 12 management candidates perform realistic management tasks (like making presentations) under the observation of expert appraisers; each candidate’s management potential is thereby assessed or appraised. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Assessment Centers In-basket exercise – Simulation exercise or realistic situations and problems encountered on the job are written on individual sheets of paper and set in the in- basket. – The applicant is then asked to arrange the papers by priority. – Occasionally, the applicant may need to write an action response. – The problems or situations described to the applicant involve different groups of people--peers, subordinates, and those outside the organization. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Assessment Centers The leaderless group discussion. A group (without a leader) is given a discussion question and tasked to arrive at a decision. The raters then evaluate each group member's interpersonal skills, acceptance by the group, leadership ability, and individual influence. Used mostly for managerial positions, but can be used for other situations (e.g. military recruitments, etc) PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Assessment Centers Management games. – Participants engage in realistic problem solving, usually as members of two or more simulated companies that are competing in the marketplace. The interview. – The participants’ current interests, background, past performance, and motivation are assessed through interactive questions and answers session. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Situational Judgement Tests Situational Judgement Tests: With this, selected hypothetical work-based scenarios are presented to applicants, who make judgements about possible response, and these responses are then assessed against a predetermined scoring key The objective is to assess applicants’ judgement regarding such situations. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Find out more about these Biographical information (biodata approach) Referencing Telephone screening Graphology Polygraphy PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Choice of Selection Methods Number of applicants Criticality of position Cost/effort involved Predictive validity Extent of preparation required PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  PSYC 457 Lectures 7-11 Job Analysis Analyzing a job involves the determination of what tasks make up a job, the tasks’ relative importance, and what KSAOs are necessary to successfully carry out those tasks PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Definition Spector (2006) A method for describing jobs and/or the human attributes necessary to perform them. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Job analysis is a data-gathering process in which the job analyst determines: what the employee actually does on the job the required qualifications needed to perform those duties and the context in which the job is performed. Job analysis can be conducted for existing and anticipated jobs. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Find out what each of the following terminologies means: PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Framework for Industrial Psychology Job Analysis Job evaluation Job description Job specifications Criterion development Selection Performance appraisal Compensation Placement Job design/ redesign training PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Foundation of All HR Practices HR Planning Legal Staffing Compliance Employee JOB ANALYSIS Training Relations Performance Rewards Management Safety & Health PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology PURPOSES OF JOB ANALYSIS These include:  Career Development  Job classification  Criterion development and performance appraisal  Selection and placement  Job design and redesign  Research  Training  etc Who provides JA information (Spector, 2006: p. 59) Job incumbent Supervisor or manager Former jobholders Job analysts Subject matter experts (SMEs) Industry resources Professional organizations like SHRM, SIOP, GJA, etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Approaches to Collecting JA Information Refer to Spector, 2006, pp. 59-61:  Job Performance  Direct Observation  Interviews  SME (Subject Matter Expert) Panels  Critical Incidents  Questionnaires  Each has advantages and Limitations  APPROACHES TO JOB ANALYSIS Job analysis methods could be put in either:  Job oriented techniques  Person/Worker oriented techniques  Trait- Oriented (Saal & Knight, 1995) PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  APPROACHES TO JOB ANALYSIS Job-Oriented Approach describes the various tasks that are performed on the job. Task Inventory Approach Functional Job Analysis Person/Worker oriented techniques examine broad human behaviours involved in work activities (Gatewood & Feild, 2001). Job element Method (JEM) Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) Trait-Oriented: Focuses on whether specific psychological traits contribute to job performance, and assessing these traits, if they are there PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Outcomes of Job Analysis Job description: Systematic, detailed summary of job tasks, duties and responsibilities. Assures that employees and managers are on the same page regarding who does what. Job specification: Detailed summary of qualifications needed to perform required job tasks. Job Evaluation & Performance standards: Establishes the level of satisfactory performance, linking this to pay for the job. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology ELEMENTS OF A GOOD JOB DESCRIPTION Job title Job Code Brief Summary Work activities Tools and Equipment Used Work Performance Job Competencies (Job Specifications) Job context or any unusual elements. Date created. Revision number and date. Job Specification This is a description of the people requirement on the job The job specification delineates the KSAOs deemed necessary to perform the job. One of the major purposes of Job analysis is to identify KSAOs that can be used in the selection of employees. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Maintenance of JDs and JS Job descriptions and specifications must be kept current to reflect changes in: Work practices and processes. Tools and equipment used on the job. Levels of discretion Licensure or certification. Annual review during performance appraisal. Review when incumbent turns over. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Job Evaluation A family of quantitative techniques used to scientifically determine salary levels of jobs. They are similar to Job Analysis techniques Note: Job analysis methods are used in conducting job evaluation (JA could be done purposively for JE) To achieve: Internal equity External competiveness PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Human Resource Training and Development Topic Objectives By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Understand why training is needed in organisations 2. Provide examples of concepts and principles from the psychology of training and development that make a constructive contribution to organisations. 3. Appreciate the reasoning behind training needs assessments. 4. Discuss some training forms and methods. 5. Provide a basis for making useful training interventions within organisations and evaluating such interventions. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Training It focuses on the systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts or attitudes that result in improved performance in the work environment (Goldstein, 1993). A planned efforts by an organisation to facilitate the learning of job-related behaviour on the part of its employees (Wexley & Latham, 1991) Planned effort by an organisation to facilitate employees’ learning of job related competencies Knowledge, skills or behaviours that are critical for successful job performance PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Training & Development Training and Development: is concerned with specialised activities aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and groups in organisational settings. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Other Terms Some call it Human Resource Development, or Learning and Development (L&D) Talent Development PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  The term talent development is becoming popular in recent times as organisations now move from the traditional term: Training & Development. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Why Training & Development ?!!! Why??? To bring about improvement in skills, and in performance in situations where other factors may not necessarily be the cause(s) of low performance in organisations. To be abreast with the times and changing situations To socialise new employees PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Some Specific Benefits Individual: develops series of skills, gets to enhance promotion opportunities, moves easily between jobs and organisations, works faster and professionally Organisations: enjoy increased productivity, safer working environment, improved employee wellbeing, lower levels of absenteeism and turnover Society as a whole: ???!!!>>>??? (why? How?) PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Important steps Assessing training needs Setting training objectives Choosing the appropriate method(s) Designing training itself Training Delivery Training Evaluation PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Training Needs Analysis This is concerned with: identify training needs and objectives (at individual, group, organisational level) The aim is to determine whether training is necessary, It helps in identifying how training would be designed, delivered and evaluated It helps in selecting who to train (trainees) It helps in getting to choose the method It also aids in training evaluation PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Basic Levels of Training needs Analysis Organisational Analysis Task (role) Analysis Person Analysis PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Training Needs Analysis (cont..) Organisational Analysis: This is done to understand the role of a particular training in the whole organisational system. Is training the viable solution to organisational problem, if so, where….? It is to identify whether: training supports organisation’s strategic direction; managers, peers, and employees support training; and training resources are available PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Training Needs Analysis (cont..) - Task (role) Analysis: Identifying which task in a job should be targeted for improved performance It involves identifying tasks that must be performed and the KSAOs required to perform them well. Information could be taken from job analysis PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Training Needs Analysis (cont..) Person Analysis This involves identifying employees who need training, i.e whether current performance or expected performance indicates a need for training and what kind of training they need. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Who should participate in Needs Assessment? Upper-level Managers Mid-level Managers Trainers Employees PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Methods used in Needs Assessment Methods: Observation Questionnaires Interviews Focus Group Discussion Documentation (Technical Manuals, Records, etc Each has advantages & Disadvantages PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Question… Why is training needs assessment necessary? PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Setting Training Objectives Objectives based on needs assessment help trainees understand why they need training. Training Objectives refer to the purpose and expected outcome of training activities. Objectives for: Overall training programme Each training session PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Setting Training Objectives Components of objectives A statement of what the employee is expected to do (performance or outcome) the quality or level of performance that is acceptable (criterion) the conditions under which trainee is expected to perform the desired outcome PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Training & Development Methods/Techniques How will training occur, and how do we achieve changes in KSAOs Think about the appropriate technique Consider the adv and disadv Main techniques can be put into 2: On-Site Techniques Off-Site Techniques PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology On-site techniques On-site training occurs on the same job site where the trainee will be performing after training. Variations: On-the-job training Job rotation Mentoring Remember: each has its advantages and disadvantages PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology On-site techniques (cont) On-the-job Training: New trainees are placed with experienced workers to learn job tasks through observation and imitation. ADV: Relatively inexpensive; no special training space required; increases likelihood of positive transfer, etc DISADV: trainer may lack trg skills; tension between trainer & trainee; etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology On-site techniques (cont) Job Rotation: trainee goes through series of job assignments in various parts of org, so trainee is exposed to different positions and dept. Adv: !!!????!! Disadv: !!!???!!! For it to be effective: PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology On-site techniques (cont) Mentoring: here, a senior, experienced, influential person provides guidance and support in a protégé’s career dev’t, or takes a personal interest in another individual’s devt (Mahler, 1991) Skills may be taught, but mostly it’s values and philosophies that are learnt ADV: direct constant contact DISADV: likely one-way thinking PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Off-site techniques So that trainees can learn specific skills, not necessarily the entire job DISADV: difficult for transfer of training Types: Classroom lecture; conference; workshops; etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Off-site techniques (cont) Classroom lecture: semiformal discourse for facts, concepts, series on events, etc to be presented ADV: larger group of trainees at a time; DISADV: little interaction due to one-way communication For it to be effective!!!???!! PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Principles of Learning Relatively permanent change in behaviour that occur as a result of experience or practice (Wexley & Latham, 2002). Why is it central to training in organisations? PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Learning principles vital for effective organisational training Active learning Size of the unit to be learnt Distributed vs massed practice Meaningfulness of material Practice and overlearning Feedback PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Learning Theories Several theories relate how people learn Reinforcement theory: that people are motivated to perform or avoid behaviours due to outcome associated with it Implication for Training: That for learners to acquire knowledge, change behaviour, or modify skills, the trainer should identify and link outcomes that trainees find +ve or -ve PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Learning Theories Social Learning Theory: That people learn by observation Implications for Training: Directly experiencing the consequences Vicarious learning Self-efficacy PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Learning Theories Goal Theories: That behaviour results from a person’s conscious goals and intentions. Specific challenging goals preferred to vague, unchallenging ones Goals influence behaviour by: Directing energy and attention Sustaining effort over time Motivating the person to develop strategies For Training: learning can be facilitated by providing trainees specific challenging goals and objectives PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Learning Theories Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy) based on several assumptions, that: Adults have the need to know why they are learning something Adults have a need to be self directed Adults bring more work-related experiences to the learning situation Adults enter into learning experience with a problem- centred approach to learning Adults are motivated to learn by intrinsic and extrinsic motivators PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Transfer of Training What is it? The extent to which material, skills, or procedures learned in training are taken back to the job and used by the trainee in some regular fashion (Levy, 2013) The degree of generalisability of the behaviours learned in training to those behaviours evidenced on the job that enhance performance (Muchinsky, 2012) PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Transfer of Training The success of a training programme is dependent on effective transfer of training Why?!?!? Discuss PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Types They are Positive transfer Negative Transfer Zero Transfer There is also: Near Transfer Far Transfer PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Factors affecting Transfer of Training Practice/Rehearsal Meaningfulness of task Task similarity Time interval between learning and transfer Task difficulty PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Importance of Transfer of Training 1. Helps trainees acquire specific information more easily 2. Helps trainees function effectively in situations for which they have no previously acquired information. 3. It enables trainees to solve problems they have never seen before. PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Technology and Training Video-conferencing Audiovisual aids Distance learning etc PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Training evaluation Aim is to: Determine overall impact and effectiveness of each component Collect data that would serve as valid basis for improving training system and maintaining quality control PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Evaluation design Did any change occur? Did the training programme lead to these changes? Can these changes be generalized to new trainees? This requires the understanding of Pre-test; training; posttest!!!!! Why? PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Framework of Evaluation Criteria Level Criteria Focus 4 Results Business Results achieved by trainees 3 Behaviour Improvement of behaviour on the job 2 Learning Acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes, behaviours 1 Reactions Trainee satisfaction PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Other forms of Evaluation Cognitive Outcomes Skill-based outcomes Affective Outcome Results Return on investment PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Summary Training and development is important for various reasons, especially To learn new skills Update existing skills PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  PSYC 457 LECTURE 12 & 13 PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Performance Management & Performance Appraisal Objectives By the end, you will know: Definition and Distinction: Performance Management & Appraisal The Benefits/Uses of Performance Appraisals Methods and Procedures of Performance Appraisal Judgemental Evaluations and Rating Errors Rater Training & Motivation Feedback of Appraisal Information to employees PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Performance Management A system of individual performance improvement that typically includes Setting performance objectives and goal Continuous coaching and feedback Performance appraisal Development planning It is linked to organisational goals, and the system is implemented on a continuous cycle, rather than once per year PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Performance Appraisal Some call it performance evaluation It is the systematic review and evaluation of job performance, as well as the provision of feedback It is done mostly once in a year Some do it at the end of business year Others do it every six months PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Purposes of Performance Appraisal Data 1. Administrative Decision 1. Remuneration Administration 2. Promotions, Transfers and Lay-off decisions 3. HR Planning 4. Grievance and Discipline Programmes 2. Employee Training and Development Programme 3. To confirm the services of probationary employees upon their satisfactory completion of the probationary period 4. Feedback: To inform employees about their current performance and assist them to improve upon it 5. Validation of Selection Programmes PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Negative, if… If performance management is not carefully developed and implemented, it can lead to: Promoting, transferring, firing the wrong person Feelings of inequity (salary, promotion, etc) Disgruntled employees Customers may be poorly served Legal issues PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Why Performance Appraisal Programmes Sometimes Fail 1. Appraisers lack information concerning employee’s actual performance 2. Standards by which to evaluate an employee’s performance is unclear 3. Superior is not honest/sincere during appraisals 4. Ineffective discussions on employee development 5. Superior lacks appraisal skills 6. Personalising the process: (e.g. Settling scores) PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Who should appraise? Immediate supervisor Subordinates Peers Self-appraisal Customer appraisal Where all these are used simultaneously, it is called Multisource Feedback (MSF) This is also called ‘360-Degree feedback’ PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Methods/Rating Formats There are many Graphical Performance Rating Scale Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) Essay Employee comparison Procedures PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Judgemental evaluation & Rating Errors in Appraisal 1. Error of central tendency: Where all employees are rated about average, i.e, the rater is reluctant to assign either extremely high or extremely low ratings PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Judgemental evaluation & Rating Errors in Appraisal 2. Leniency/strictness error: where a rater gives unusually high or unusually low ratings. Eg ‘all my employees are excellent’ or non of my employees is good enough’ PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Judgemental evaluation & Rating Errors in Appraisal 3. Recency error: where appraisal is based largely on the employee’s most recent work behaviour without work-record documentation for the entire evaluation period PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Judgemental evaluation & Rating Errors in Appraisal 4. Contrast error: Where an employee’s performance rating is based on comparison with another employee just previously evaluated. Instead of basing on established standards PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Judgemental evaluation & Rating Errors in Appraisal 5. Similar-to-me Error: when appraisers inflate the evaluation of an employee because of a mutual personal connection, e.g., gender, religious or ethnic background, old-school mates, etc. this may result in discrimination PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Judgemental evaluation & Rating Errors in Appraisal 6. ‘Halo’ Error: The tendency to focus on one aspect of employee’s work behaviour and allow it to influence opinion on appraisal PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Ethical Consideration Respect for the individual Mutual Respect Procedural fairness Transparency PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Accidents and Safety at Work This focuses on the psychological aspects of employee health and well- being at work, Several factors have been observed to pose threats to work settings and employee well-being: Physical conditions and unforeseen circumstances PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Occupational Health Psychology A subfield of psychology concerned with psychological factors that contribute to occupational health and well-being (Spector, 2006) PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology Accident A hazard materializing in a sudden, probabilistic event (or chains of events) with adverse consequences (such as injuries). Meister (1987): Unexpected events that have a negative effect on productivity or other aspects of performance PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  “Unplanned incident that causes injury to employee and/or damage to equipment which results in loss of time from work beyond the day the incident occurs” PSYC 457: Industrial Psychology  Occupational Accidents They are different from other accidents they happen in a working life context the main consequences are limited to injuries on the involved workers the worker is sometimes the agent as well as the victim of the injury. Injuries can be classified according to the nature of the injury (cut, fracture, burns, etc.), the part of the body affected by it (head, neck, etc.) its severity. Cost of Accidents at Work Losing money Employee’s perspective Organisation spends on employee health in case of accident and compensation to victims and their families Legal rumblings Organisation loses man-hours Damaged machines to be repaired Cost of Accidents at Work Psychological effect on victim If it’s amputation Colleagues who observed the accident In case of death, family members’ psychological trauma