Industrial/Organizational Psychology Reviewer PDF

o Conducts surveys of employees’ attitudes, usually serving the role INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY of a consultant who makes r...

o Conducts surveys of employees’ attitudes, usually serving the role INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY of a consultant who makes recommendations on ways problems OUTLINE can be improved o Develop organization-wide programs like team building, INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY restructuring, employees empowerment to improve employee A branch of psychology that applies the principles of psychology to the performance workplace Ergonomics/Human Factors o Concentrate on workplace design, human-machine interaction, With the purpose of enhancing the dignity and performance of human beings ergonomics, physical fatigue and stress and the organizations they work in by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior IMPORTANT EVENTS AND PEOPLE IN THE HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY It relies on research, quantitative methods and testing techniques I/O psychologists are trained to use empirical data and statistics than 1870s – Appendage of organizational psychology to industrial psychology clinical judgment to make decisions Difference from other related fields (ex: HR): William Bryan o Application of psychological principles like the use of psychological A psychologist who studied the skills of telegraphers as they use the Morse tests code o Psychologists examines factors that affects the people in an (1st force) He stressed out examining real skills used in everyday life organization as opposed to the broader aspects of running an organization (2nd force) Desires of industrial engineers to improve productivity of industrial employees evolve 2 APPROACHES OF ACHIEVING THE GOAL OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY Industrial approach – focuses on determining the competencies needed to 1910 – Industrial Psychology came to be a special area of psychology perform a job, staffing the organization with employees who have the competencies and increasing competencies through training Walter Dill Scott Organizational approach – creates an organizational structure and culture 1903 he published his 1st book: “Theory of Advertising” emphasizing on the that will motivate employees to perform well, give them the necessary need of psychology in advertising information to do their jobs and provide working conditions that are safe and 1911 published his 2nd book: “Increasing Human Efficiency in Business” results in an enjoyable and satisfying work environment which is about tactics, loyalty and human efficiency MAJOR FIELDS OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY Frederick Taylor Personnel Psychology An engineer considered to be the Father of Scientific Management who o Study of areas such as job analysis, recruitment, selection, sought to improve industrial efficiency determining salary levels, training employees and performance One of his important works is the “Principles of Scientific Management” evaluation o Uses tests to select and promote employees Lillian Moller Gilbreth o Construct performance appraisal instruments A female psychologist who pioneered in industrial management techniques Organizational Psychology Her works are concerned with the human aspect of time management o Concerned with the issues of leadership, conflict management, She was the 1st to recognize the effects of stress and fatigue among workers organizational change, group process within an organization and 1908 she gave a speech to industrial engineers pointing out that human job satisfaction beings is the most important aspect of the industry but have not receive any attention Hugo Munsterberg New interest in the application of cognitive psychology to the industry Created the Army Alpha Test (German) Increased interest in the effects of work on family life and leisure activities Considered to be the Father of Industrial Psychology I/O psychology developed new methods of selecting employees He is a popular figure in American Education who applied traditional psychological method to industrial setting He published the book: “Psychology and Industrial Efficiency” which is about CRITERIA AS STANDARDS OF DECISION-MAKING selecting workers, designing work stations and using psychology in sales CRITERIA He is also famous for his study “What makes a safe trolley operator?” Are evaluative standards by which objects, individuals, procedures or World War I collectives are assessed for the purpose of ascertaining their quality I/O psychology has made its 1st impact Conceptual Criterion I/O psychologist were employed to test recruits and place armies on Is a theoretical construct, an abstract idea that can never actually be appropriate positions measured They used the “Army Alpha” and “Army Beta” tests of Mental Ability by It is an ideal set of factors that constitute a successful person as conceived Munsterberg to assess armies in a psychologist’s mind Hawthorne Experiments (Western Electric Company) Actual Criterion Most significant research in I/O psychology which shows enormous The operational or the actual standard that researchers measure or assess problems of production in relation to efficiency The study attempted to find out the relationship of lighting or illumination to 3 FORMS OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACTUAL AND CONCEPTUAL CRITERIA employees’ productivity Criterion deficiency – is the degree to which the actual criteria fail to overlap the Hawthorne Effect – the positive change in behavior that occurs at the onset of an conceptual criteria – that is, how deficient the actual criteria are in representing the intervention followed by a gradual decline often to the original level of the behavior conceptual ones prior to the intervention Criterion relevance – the degree to which the actual criteria and the conceptual The Psychological Corporation criteria coincide Founded in 1921 by James Cattell With the purpose of advancing psychology and promote its usefulness to the Criterion contamination – the part of the actual criteria that is unrelated to the industry conceptual criteria As the largest publisher of psychological test it also served as the “clearing house” in order to protect against quacks and to provide the list of Bias – the extent to which the actual criteria systematically or consistently psychologists who can render services measure something other than the conceptual criteria World War II Error – the extent to which the actual criteria are not related to anything at all The “Army General Classification Test” (AGCT) was used to assess and place draftees and assess the skills and abilities of military men JOB ANALYSIS Is a procedure useful in identifying the criteria or performance dimensions of Major Changes in 1980s – 1990s a job Increase use of fairly sophisticated statistical techniques and methods for analysis  A formal procedure by which the content of a job is defined in terms of tasks Job Competencies – knowledge, skills, abilities (KSAOs) needed on the job performed, the situation in which the work is performed and the human at the time of hiring and those that can be obtained after hiring attributes needed to perform the job It is the process of gathering, analyzing and structuring information about a THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN PREPARING FOR A JOB ANALYSIS job’s components, characteristics and requirements A trained staff from the HR department, a consultant, or trained job incumbents and supervisors should conduct the job analysis IMPORTANCE OF JOB ANALYSIS The job description should be updated if a job changes significantly 1. Writing Job Description Participants of job analysis should be chosen randomly with the 2. Employee Selection consideration of job competence, race, gender, education, personality, and 3. Training viewpoints 4. Personpower Planning On smaller companies every employees should participate on the job 5. Performance Appraisal analysis 6. Job Classification Levels of specificity, formal vs informal tasks should also be taken into 7. Job Evaluation consideration 8. Job Design 9. Compliance with Legal Guidelines CONDUCTING THE JOB ANALYSIS 10. Organizational Analysis 1. Identify the Tasks Performed – identify major job dimensions and the tasks performed for each dimension, the tools and equipments used and all the JOB DESCRIPTION conditions to which the tasks are performed A relatively short summary of a job, usually 2-5 pages, it must describe a job in enough detail that decisions about activities such as selection and training Methods of Gathering Information can be made Interview – a job analyst interview Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) It should be updated on a regular basis about their job Is the written result of job analysis procedure which serve as basis for HR o Individual interview – one-on-one interview to get the activities employees’ perspective on the jobs’ duties and responsibilities 8 SECTIONS OF A JOB DESCRIPTION o Group interview – used when large number of employees perform the same job Job Title – an accurate title that describes the job o Panel discussion – panel of experts representing all levels Brief Summary – a paragraph which describes the nature and purpose of the of the organization discuss the standards of the job job which can be used in help-wanted ads Work Activities – list of tasks and activities in which the worker is involved Direct Observation/Observation of Incumbents – lets the job analyst which can be divided into categories actually see the worker perform her job and obtain information that Tools and Equipments Used – list of all tools and equipments needed on the the worker may have forgotten during the interview job Job Context – should describe the environment in which the employee Questionnaire/Inventory – use readily available structured/ works, the stress level, work schedule, physical demands, levels of unstructured questionnaire that acquire existing knowledge about responsibilities, temperature, number of co-workers, degree of danger, etc. job information into a taxonomy which is applicable for large Work Performance – outline of standards of performance and how employee number of employees will be evaluated Compensation Information – info about salary grade and the compensable Job Participation – analyze a job by actually performing it factors used to determine salary  2. Write the Task Statements – it should be properly written containing the COMPETENCY MODELING – the activity of determining the specific competencies action (what is done) and the object (to which the action is done) and the that are characteristic of high performance and success in a job where, when, why and how the job is done Difference of Job Analysis and Competency Modeling 3. Rate the Task Statements Conduct a Task Analysis – where a group of SMEs would rate each Job Analysis Competency Modeling statement based on the frequency and importance or criticality of Examines both the work that gets Does not consider the work being the tasks performed and the human attributes performed needed on the job 4. Determine Essential KSAOs Identify specific and different KSAOs Competencies apply to all employees; a. Knowledge – body of information needed to perform the task that distinguishes jobs within the more universal and abstract than the b. Skills – proficiency to perform the learned task organization KSAOs c. Ability – basic capacity for performing a wide range of different KSAOs are identified using technical Include review sessions and group tasks, acquiring knowledge or developing a skill methods meetings of many employees thus d. Other characteristics – personality, willingness, interest, motivation employees readily identify with and relate and tangible factors like licenses, degrees, years of experience to resulting competencies Does not try to capture/include Links personal qualities of employees to 5. Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs – use of interviews, work samples, ability organization-level values and vision overall mission of the organization tests, personality tests, reference checks, integrity checks and biodata JOB EVALUATION OTHER JOB ANALYSIS METHOD Is a useful procedure in determining the relative value of jobs in the General Information about Work Activities: organization which in turn helps determine the level of compensation Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) Assess the value of each job in an organization Job Structure Profile (JSP) Job analysis describes a job while in a job evaluation you compare jobs in Job Elements Inventory (JEI) terms of those things that the organization considers important determinants Functional Job Analysis of job worth Information about Tools and Equipments COMPENSATION – all forms of rewards earned by employees in return of their labor Job Components Inventory FORMS OF COMPENSATION: Information about Work Environment Direct financial compensation (wages, salaries, bonuses and commissions) AET (Ergonomic Job Analysis Procedure) Indirect financial compensation (benefits, leaves, retirement plan) Non-financial compensation (career development, opportunities for Information about Competencies (KSAOs) recognition or advancement) Occupational Information Network (O*NET) Critical Incident Technique To determine successful compensation system there should be fairness or equity Job Components Inventory Threshold Traits Analysis 2 FORMS OF PAY EQUITY: Fleishman Job Analysis Survey External Equity Job Adaptability Inventory o Compares the job to the external market Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF)  o When employees in an organization perceive that they are being Subjective Performance Criteria – a set of factors used to assess job rewarded fairly in relation to those who perform similar jobs in performance that are product of someone’s subjective rating of these factors another organization nternal Equity EIGHT MAJOR JOB PERFORMANCE CRITERIA o Comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that the people in Production jobs worth the most money are paid accordingly Sales o When employees in an organization perceive that they are being Tenure or turnover rewarded fairly according to the relative value of their jobs within an Absenteeism organization Accidents Theft Compensable Factors – dimension of work (a skill or effort) used to assess the Counterproductive workplace behavior relative value of a job for determining compensation rates Customer service behavior Hay Plan – also known as Hay Guide Chart-Profile Method which is used to identify RECRUITMENT – process of attracting people with the right qualifications ( as compensable factors used in determining compensation of managers and executives determined by a job analysis) to apply for a job Salary Surveys – company send surveys to other organizations and ask about how 2 FORMS OF RECRUITMENT much an organization pay its employees in various positions Internal Recruitment – promote someone from the organization to do the job External Recruitment – hire someone from outside the organization METHODS OF JOB EVALUATION METHODS OF RECRUITMENT Ranking Method –simplest method of job evaluation wherein jobs are Newspaper Ads usually ranked from highest to lowest in each department and the o Applicants may respond on a newspaper ad in 4 ways: department rankings are combined to develop an organizational ranking ▪ Respond by calling – used to quickly screen applicants Classification Method – a predetermined number of job groups or classes ▪ Apply-in-person – applicants fill out specific job application are established and pays are assigned to these classifications form and employers get a physical look of the applicants Factor Compensation Method – more systematic and scientific method ▪ Send-Resume – the organization who uses this type of ad wherein each job is ranked according to a series of factors and pay will be expects large response and does not have the resources assigned by comparing the weights of the factors required for each job to speak to thousands of applicants Point Method – jobs are expressed in terms of key factors in which ▪ Send-Resume to a Blind Box – resumes were sent to an equivalent points are assigned after prioritizing each factor in order of address other than the organization importance then points are summed up to determine the wage rate for the Electronic Media – advertising on television and radio stations job Situation-Wanted Ads – are placed by the applicants rather than the organizations JOB PERFORMANCE CRITERIA – the criteria for success in a certain job depend on Point-of-purchase Method – same as the “POP” (point-of-purchase) in how that job contributes to the overall success of the organization advertising wherein job vacancy notices are posted in places where customers/current employees are likely to see (ex: windows, bulletin boards) Recruiters 2 TYPES OF JOB PERFORMANCE CRITERIA o Forms of Recruiters: Objective Performance Criteria – a set of factors used to assess job performance that are objective or factual in character  ▪ Campus Recruiters – send recruiters to colleges to Reduce the chance of a legal challenge answer questions about themselves and interview Cost-effective students for available positions ▪ Virtual job fairs – applicants can talk via an instant SELECTION TECHNIQUES message to a recruiter, learn more about the company Effective selection is essential to recruit people with the right skills and experience to and submit resumes drive the organisation forward. Employers spend a lot of time and money recruiting ▪ Outside Recruiters new staff, so it is important that they follow good practice and get it right first time. ❖ Public Employment Agencies – operated by the (Source) state and local public agencies and are strictly non-profit EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW – most commonly used method ❖ Employment Agencies – may charge the o Types of Interviews: company or the applicant when the applicant ▪ Based on Structure – source of questions, extent to which gets the job the applicants were asked the same questions and the ❖ Executive Search Firms – also known as “head scoring system hunters” who gave higher-paying non-entry level ❖ Structured – source of question is a job analysis, positions and always charge the organization and all applicants were asked the same questions usually 30% of the applicant’s 1st year salary is and a standardized scoring system is used charged ❖ Unstructured – interviewers are free to ask any Employee Referrals – in which current employees recommends family questions members and friends for a specific job opening ▪ Based on Style – determined by the number of Direct Mail – an employer typically obtain a mailing list and sends help- interviewers and interviewees wanted letters/brochures to people listed through the mail ❖ One-on-one – 1 interviewer is to 1 applicant Internet ❖ Panel interview – multiple interviewers ask and o Employer-based websites – organization lists available job valuate the same applicant openings and provides info about itself and the minimum ❖ Group interview – multiple applicants answering requirements needed to apply for the job questions at the same time o Internet Recruiter – s private company whose website lists job ❖ Serial interview – series of single interview openings for hundreds of organizations and resumes for thousands ▪ Based on Medium – extent to which they are done in of applicants person Job Fairs – designed to provide information in a personal fashion to as many ❖ Face-to-face – interviewer and applicant is at the applicants possible same place ❖ Telephone – do not allow visual cues REALISTIC JOB PREVIEW – giving an applicant an honest assessment for a job ❖ Video conference – conducted on remote areas (those informed applicants tend to stay longer because they know what to expect – and the setting is not personal according to studies) ❖ Written interview – involves applicants answering a series of question and send back their answers EXPECTATION LOWERING PROCEDURE – lowers applicants’ expectations about through mail or email work in general o Types of Interview Questions 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE EMPLOYEE SELECTION TECHNIQUE ▪ Clarifiers – allows the interviewer to clarify information in Valid – should be based on job analysis, predicts work-related behavior and the resume, cover letter and application, fill in gaps and measures constructs it purports to measure obtain information  ▪ Disqualifiers – questions that must be answered in a ▪ Signature – use “cordially” or “sincerely” above your particular manner or the applicant may not be qualified signature ▪ Skill Level Determinants – tap interviewee’s level of expertise RESUME – summaries of an applicant’s professional and educational ▪ Future-focused questions – also called “situational background questions” ask an applicant what she would do in a particular situation Characteristics of an Effective Resume ▪ Past-focused questions – also called “patterned behavior ✓ The resume must be attractive and easy to read description interview” wherein applicants are asked to ✓ The resume cannot contain typing, spelling, grammatical provide specific examples of how they demonstrated job or factual mistakes related skills in previous jobs ▪ Organizational-fit questions – tap the extent to which the TYPES OF RESUME: applicant will fit into the culture of an organization or with ▪ Chronological Resume – list previous jobs in order from the leadership style of a supervisor the most to the least recent ▪ Functional Resume – organizes jobs based on the skills o Ways of Scoring Interview Answers: required to perform them rather than in order to which they ▪ Right/Wrong Approach – applicable for skill determinants were worked which can be scored simply when an answer is correct or ▪ Psychological Resume – combined strength of incorrect chronological and functional, the 1st paragraph contains ▪ Typical Answer Approach – create a list of all possible the strength, then education and work experience answers to each question, have SMEs rate the favorableness of each answer and use the ratings to serve REFERENCE CHECKS – process of confirming the accuracy of the as a benchmark answer for each point on the scale information provided by the applicant ▪ Key Issues Approach – SMEs create a list of key issues they think should be included in the perfect answer Reference – is an expression of an opinion either orally or a written checklist of applicant’s ability, previous performance, work habits and character COVER LETTERS – tells the employer that you are enclosing your resume potentials for future success. This is usually sent in general using “To Whom and would like to apply for a job It May Concern” Important Contents: ▪ Salutation – address the letter to the correct person or LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION – letter expressing an opinion regarding position an applicant’s ability and previous performance and usually sent to a specific ▪ Paragraph person ❖ 1st paragraph – contain the fact that your resume is enclosed, the name of the job you are applying o Raynes (2005) Guidelines to follow when providing References: for and how you know about the job opening ▪ Explicitly state your relationship with the person you are ❖ 2nd paragraph – state that you are qualified for recommending the job and provide at least three reasons why ▪ Be honest in providing information ❖ 3rd paragraph – state why you want to work with ▪ Let the applicant read your reference before sending it the company ❖ Last paragraph – contain the information about APPLICANT’S TRAINING AND EDUCATION – all applicants must have a how they can reach you. minimum level of education or training to be considered  o Theory-based – the number of JOB KNOWLEDGE TESTS – designed to measure how much a person dimension is identical to the number know about the job postulated by a well-known theorist (ex: MBTI) o Statistically-based – number of ABILITY TESTS - used when applicants are not expected to know how to dimensions determined through perform the job at the time of hire statistical process called “factor o Cognitive Ability – oral and written comprehension, oral and written analysis” (ex: 16PF) expression, numerical facility, originality, memorization, reasoning o Empirically-based – number and and general learning location of dimension is determined by o Perceptual Ability – consist of vision, color discrimination, depth, depth perception, glare sensitivity, speech clarity and hearing grouping answers given by people known to possess a certain o Psychomotor Ability – test for finger dexterity, manual dexterity, characteristics (ex: MMPI) control precision, multi-limb coordination, response control, reaction time, arm-hand steadiness, wrist-finger speed and speed of limb ▪ Test of Psychopathology – determine whether individuals movement have serious psychological problems such as depression, o Physical Ability – often used for jobs that require physical strength bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, etc or stamina 2 types: o Objective Tests – structured scoring so WORK SAMPLES - applicants perform the actual job-related tasks that respondent is limited to a few answers that will be scored using standardized ways SSESSMENT CENTERS – a selection technique characterized by the use of o Projective Tests – provide respondent multiple assessment methods that will allow multiple assessors to actually with unstructured tasks such as observe applicants perform simulated job tasks describing inkblots or drawing pictures APPLICANT’S EXPERIENCE INTEREST INVENTORIES – tap vocational interests of the applicant o Experience can be measured in 4 ways: ▪ Reference Checks Strong Interest Inventory (SII) – most commonly used interest test which ▪ Interviews asks individuals to indicate whether they like or dislike 325 items such as ▪ Bio-data – a selection method that considers the bargaining, repairing electrical wirings and taking responsibility applicant’s life, school, military, community and work experience INTEGRITY TESTS – also called “honesty test” which tells an employer the ▪ Experience Ratings of applications/resume – consider probability that an applicant would steal money or merchandise amount of experience, level of performance demonstrated o 2 Types of Paper-and-pencil Integrity Test: during previous experience and how related is the ▪ Overt Integrity test – based on the premise that a person’s experience to the current job attitudes about theft in society as well as previous theft behavior will predict his future honesty PERSONALITY INVENTORIES ▪ Personality-based Integrity test – were general in that they o Two Categories of Personality Inventory: tap a variety of personality traits thought to be related to a ▪ Test of Normal Personality – measure the traits exhibited wide-range of counterproductive behavior by the normal individual’s everyday life Basis of Number of Traits and Type of Personality dimension measured: