I-O Psychology Reviewer PDF

Industrial/Organizational Psychology conflict management, organizational change, and (Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION TO I/O group processes within an organization. PSYCHOLOGY) Human Factors/Ergonomics - A field...

Industrial/Organizational Psychology conflict management, organizational change, and (Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION TO I/O group processes within an organization. PSYCHOLOGY) Human Factors/Ergonomics - A field of study Industrial/Organizational Psychology - is a concentrating on the interaction between humans branch of psychology that applies the principles and machines. Includes workplace design, of psychology to the workplace. human-machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress. PURPOSE: “to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the PIONEERS OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY organizations they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior” Professor Walter Dill Scott(1903) – The (Russi,2008). Theory of Advertising. GOAL: to increase the productivity and Hugo Munsterberg (1910) – Father of well-being of employees. Industrial Psychology - wrote “Psychology and Industrial Efficiency”. The “I” Approach - focuses on determining the John Watson – Major in the US Army in competencies needed to perform a job, staffing WWI, developed perceptual and motor tests for the organization with employees who have those potential pilots. competencies, and increasing those James Mckeen Catell (1921) – created the competencies through training. Psychological Corporation to advance Psychology and promote its usefulness to The “O” Approach - The organizational industry. approach (the “O” in I/O psychology) creates an Walter Birmingham – started the Division of organizational structure and culture that will Applied Psychology for Carnegie Institute of motivate employees to perform well, give them Technology, the first academic program in the necessary information to do their jobs, and Industrial Psychology. provide working conditions that are safe and Mary Parker Follet – Mother of Modern result in an enjoyable and satisfying work Management. environment. Frederick Winslow Taylor – mastermind of the idea of “scientific management”. Personnel Psychology - The field of study that Robert Mearns Yerkes – invented concentrates on the selection and evaluation of psychological tests. employees. Includes analyzing jobs, recruiting Frank and Lillian Gilbreth – best known for applicants, selecting employees, determining “time and motion studies”. salary levels, training employees, and evaluating Henry Ford – founder of a motor company. - employee performance. invented the “assembly line”. Elton Mayo – conducted “The Hawthorne Organizational Psychology - The field of study Studies”. that investigates the behavior of employees within the context of an organization. Includes SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT - Taylor’s issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee theory emphasizes efficiency by focusing motivation, organizational communication, entirely on employee productivity and rewarding employees monetarily based on their - mean effect size – a meta-analysis statistic that productivity. is the average of the effect sizes for all studies - Used originally in manufacturing. included in the analysis. - Principles ultimately used to create assembly Magazine – unscientific collection of articles lines, which led to mass production. about a wide range of topics. Trade magazine – a collection of articles for HAWTHORNE STUDIES those “in the biz”, about related professional A series of studies, conducted at the Western topics. Electric plant in Hawthorne, Illinois from 1927 to 1932 that have come to represent any change CULTURE -“system in which individuals share in behavior when people react to a change in the meanings and common ways of viewing events environment. and objects” (Ronen, 1997). HAWTHORNE EFFECT - When employees Hermans and Kempen (1998) have dubbed this change their behavior due solely to the fact that the “West versus the Rest” mentality. Not they are receiving attention or are being surprisingly, attempts to apply American observed. theories to non-American situations are not always successful. It appears that culture may Experimental Methods – cause and effect actually determine (or “moderate”) the relationship. effectiveness of an HRM initiative (Earley & Correlational Methods – measures naturally Erez, 1997). This is important information occurring association between two or more because it provides a roadmap for modifying a variables. theory developed in one culture for application Quasi-experimental Methods - Research to a different culture. method in which the experimenter either does not manipulate the independent variable or in Collectivist culture – culture that values the which subjects are not randomly assigned to group more than the individual. conditions. Individualist culture – a culture that values Surveys & Interviews – asking people about the individual more than the group. their opinion on some topics. Horizontal culture – a culture that minimizes Archival Research – using previously distances between individuals. collected data of records to answer questions. Vertical culture – a culture that accepts and Field Research – conducted in a natural depends upon distances between individuals. setting. Laboratory Research – conducted in Hofstede’s Theory laboratory settings. Individualism/collectivism: The degree to Case studies – real or hypothetical workplace which individuals are expected to look after problems. themselves versus remaining integrated into Meta-analysis – statistical method of reaching groups (usually the family). conclusions based on previous research. Power distance: The degree to which less - effect size– used in meta-analysis, a statistic powerful members of an organization accept and that indicates the amount of change caused by an expect an unequal distribution of power. experimental manipulation.  Uncertainty avoidance: The extent to which members of a culture feel comfortable in unstructured situations. Masculinity/femininity: The distribution of emotional roles between the genders, with the masculine role being seen as “tough” and the feminine role seen as “tender.” Masculine cultures tend to emphasize accomplishment and technical performance, while feminine cultures tend to emphasize interpersonal relationships and communication. Long-term versus short-term orientation: Brief Summary - Briefly describe the nature The extent to which members of a culture expect and purpose of the job, useful for recruitment immediate versus delayed gratification of their advertising, should be written in an easy to material, social, and emotional needs. understand style. Jargon and abbreviations should not be used. (Lessons 2: JOB ANALYSIS, Work Activities - list of tasks and activities PERFORMANCE, AND EVALUATION) involved in the job, organize by dimensions such as similar activities, similar KSAOs, and in Job Analysis - gathering and analyzing temporal order. information about the work an employee performs, the conditions under which the work Tools and Equipment - List of the tools and is performed, and the worker characteristics equipment used to perform the work activities. needed to perform the work under the identified conditions. It is the process of determining the Job Context - factors such as work schedule, work activities and requirements of a job. number of coworkers, degree of danger, and ergonomic information. WHO WILL CONDUCT THE JOB ANALYSIS? Work Performance - Standards of ❑someone with professional training performance. It describes how performance is ▪ Human Resources Department evaluated. This section might include standards ▪ Incumbents used, frequency of evaluation, evaluation ▪ Supervisors dimensions, and the person doing the evaluating. ▪ Consultants ▪ Interns/class projects Compensation Information - Includes salary grade - A cluster of jobs of similar worth. Job Title - Name or designation given to a job Information on the compensable factors, exempt or position, describes the nature of the job, status, and job group. assists in employee selection and recruitment, affects perceptions of job worth and status, and Job Competencies - Also known as: affects clarity of resumes. competencies, Knowledge, skill, ability, and other characteristics (KSAOs), Job specifications -that are necessary to be STEP 2 WRITE TASK STATEMENTS successful on the job. ❑Task statements – gives a clear picture of ❑Competencies should be separated what is being done (action) and to which the ▪ Those needed before hire action is done (object). ▪ Those that can be learned after hire ❑task inventory - A questionnaire containing a list of tasks each of which the job incumbent Job Crafting - A process in which employees rates on a series of scales such as importance unofficially change their job duties to better fit and time spent. their interests and skills. STEP 3 RATE TASK STATEMENTS Committee-based job analysis - a group of ❑A group of SMEs will rate each task subject-matter experts meet to generate the tasks statement on the frequency and the importance performed, the conditions under which they are or criticality of the task being performed, and the KSAOs needed to perform performed. them. ❑Task analysis - The process of identifying the tasks for which employees need to be trained. Field-based job analysis - job analyst ❑Tasks can be rated on a variety of scales individually interviews/observes a number of ▪ Importance incumbents in the field. ▪ Part-of-the-job ▪ Frequency of performance BASIC STEPS IN CONDUCTING JOB ▪ Time spent ANALYSIS ▪ Relative time spent ▪ Complexity STEP 1 IDENTIFY TASKS PERFORMED ▪ Criticality ▪ Subject matter experts (SMEs) - Sources ❑Research shows only two scales are necessary such as supervisors and incumbents who are ▪ Frequency knowledgeable about a job. ▪ Importance ▪ Individual interviews – job analysts interview one employee at a time. STEP 4 DETERMINE ESSENTIAL KSAOs ▪ SME Conferences - a group job analysis ❑Once the task analysis is completed and a job interview consisting of subject-matter experts analyst has a list of tasks that are essential for (SMEs). the proper performance of a job, the next step is ▪ Ammerman Technique – a job analysis to identify the KSAOs needed to perform the method in which a group of job experts tasks. identifies the objectives and standards to be met by the ideal worker. Knowledge - A body of information needed to ❑Observing Incumbents perform a task. ▪ Observations - a job analysis method in which Skill - The proficiency to perform a certain task. the job analyst watches job incumbents perform Ability - A basic capacity for performing a wide their jobs. range of different tasks, acquiring knowledge, or ❑Job participation - A job analysis method in developing a skill. which the job analyst actually performs the job Other characteristics - Personal factors such as being analyzed. personality, willingness, interest, and motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, ❑A job analysis method developed by Fine that and years of experience. rates the extent to which a job incumbent is involved with functions in the categories of data, STEP 5 SELECTING TESTS TO TAP people, and things KSAOs ▪ Data ❑Determine the best methods to tap the KSAOs ▪ People needed at the time of hire. These methods will ▪ Things be used to select new employees. 5. Job Components Inventory (JCI) STRUCTURED JOB ANALYSIS ❑A structured job analysis technique that METHODS concentrates on worker requirements for performing a job rather than on specific tasks. 1. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) ❑developed by Banks, Jackson, Stafford, and ❑A structured job analysis method developed Warr (1983) to take advantage of PAG’s by McCormick strength while avoiding some of its problems for ❑194 Items use in England ❑6 main dimensions ❑More than 400 questions ▪ Information input ❑Five major categories ▪ Mental processes 1. tools and equipment ▪ Work output 2. perceptual and physical requirements ▪ Relationships with others 3. mathematical requirements ▪ Job context 4. communication requirements ▪ Other 5. decision making and responsibility ❑Easy to use ❑Standardized Arbeitswissenschaftliches ❑Difficult to read for average employee Erhebungsverfahren zur Tätigkeitsanalyse (AET) 2. Job Structure Profile (JSP) ❑“ergonomic job analysis procedure.” ❑A revised version of the PAQ was developed ❑An ergonomic job analysis method developed by Patrick and Moore in Germany by Rohmert and Landau ❑Designed as a replacement for the PAQ ❑216-item ❑Easier to read than the PAQ ❑standardized questionnaire that analyzes a job ❑Good reliability along the dimensions: ▪ Work objects 3. Job Elements Inventory (JEI) ▪ Equipment ❑A structured job analysis technique developed ▪ Work environment by Cornelius and Hakel that is similar to the ▪ Tasks Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) but ▪ Demands of work easier to read. ❑153 items Occupational Information Network (O*NET) ❑10th grade readability level ❑a national job analysis system created by the ❑Correlates highly with PAQ federal government to replace the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), which had been in 4. Functional Job Analysis (FJA) use since the 1920s. ❑ O*NET is a major advancement in Social traits understanding the nature of work, in large part ❑Reliable because its developers understood that jobs can ❑Short and quick to use be viewed at four levels: economic, Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) organizational, occupational, and individual. ❑A job analysis method in which jobs are rated ❑ O*NET includes information about the on the basis of the abilities needed to perform occupation (generalized work activities, work them. context, organizational context) and the worker ❑73 distinct cognitive, physical, psychomotor, characteristics (ability, work style, occupational sensory-perceptual, and social/interpersonal values and interests, knowledge, skills, abilities and knowledge education) needed for success in the occupation. ❑Good reliability The O*NET also includes information about Its advantages over TTA are that it is more such economic factors as labor demand, labor detailed, is commercially available, is available supply, salaries, and occupational trends. in several languages, and can be completed online. Critical Incident Technique (CIT) ❑The job analysis method developed by John Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI) Flanagan that uses written reports of good and A job analysis method that taps the extent to bad employee behavior. which a job involves eight types of adaptability ❑Is used to discover actual incidents of job developed by Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, and behavior that make the difference between a Plamondon (2000) job’s successful or unsuccessful performance. 132 items 8 adaptability dimensions Job Components Inventory (JCI) 1. Handling emergencies ❑400 questions 2. Handling work stress ❑5 main categories 3. Solving problems creatively Tools and equipment used 4. Dealing with uncertainty Perceptual and physical requirements 5. Learning Mathematical requirements 6. Interpersonal adaptability Communication requirements 7. Cultural adaptability Decision making and responsibility 8. Physically orienting adaptability ❑Good reliability Personality-Related Position Requirements Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA) Form (PPRF) ❑33 items ❑A job analysis instrument that helps determine ❑ developed by Lopez, Kesselman, and Lopez the personality requirements for a job. (1981) ❑107 items items ❑identifies traits necessary to successfully ❑12 personality dimensions that fall under the perform a job “Big 5” personality dimensions ❑5 main categories openness to experience Physical traits Conscientiousness Mental traits Extroversion Learned traits Agreeableness Motivational traits emotional stability  NOTE: Useful job analysis instrument for STEP 2: DETERMINING THE LEVELS identifying the personality traits necessary to FOR EACH COMPENSABLE FACTOR perform a job. Performance Improvement Characteristics STEP 3: DETERMINING THE FACTOR (PIC) WEIGHTS 48 questions on the PIC help determine which Because some factors are more important than of the seven main personality traits are needed to others, weights must be assigned to each factor perform a given job. and to each level within a factor. NOTE: It is able to differentiate between jobs (Foster, Gaddis, & Hogan, 2012.) WAGE TREND LINE - A line that represents the ideal relationship between the number of JOB EVALUATION points that a job has been assigned (using the ❑The process of determining the monetary point method of evaluation) and the salary range worth of a job. for that job. ❑typically done in two stages: determining internal pay equity and determining external DETERMINING EXTERNAL PAY EQUITY pay equity. ❑Worth based on external market ❑External equity is important if an THE IDEAL COMPENSATION SYSTEM organization is to attract and retain employees. Will attract and retain desired employees ❑Determined through salary surveys Will motivate current employees while also ❑SALARY SURVEYS – a questionnaire sent providing security to other organizations to see how much they are Is equitable paying their employees in positions similar to Is in compliance with legal guidelines those in the organization sending the survey. Information obtained: salary range DETERMINING INTERNAL PAY EQUITY starting salary actual salaries paid STEP 1: DETERMINING COMPENSABLE benefits FACTORS ❑The first step in evaluating a job is to decide ❑Market Position – an organization can decide what factors differentiate the relative worth of where it wants to be in relation to the jobs. compensation policies of other organizations. ❑Compensable Factors - Factors, such as ❑Direct compensation - The amount of money responsibility and education requirements, that paid to an employee (does not count benefits, differentiate the relative worth of jobs time off, and so forth). ❑Possible compensable factors: ▪ Level of responsibility DETERMINING SEX AND RACE EQUITY ▪ Physical demands ❑pay audits should also be conducted to ensure ▪ Mental demands that employees are not paid differently on the ▪ Education requirements basis of gender or race ▪ Training and experience requirements ❑Two types of audits should be conducted: ▪ Working conditions ❑equal pay for equal work ❑Comparable worth - the idea that jobs Mediation - A method of resolving conflict in requiring the same level of skill and which a neutral third party is asked to help the responsibility should be paid the same regardless two parties reach an agreement. of supply and demand. Arbitration - A method of resolving conflicts in POTENTIAL SALARY SURVEY which a neutral third party is asked to choose PROBLEMS which side is correct. Response rate organization conducted ❑Binding arbitration - A method of resolving trade group conducted conflicts in which a neutral third party is asked Finding comparable jobs to choose which side is correct and in which neither party is allowed to appeal the decision. ❑ Nonbinding arbitration - A method of (Lesson 3: LEGAL ISSUES IN EMPLOYEE resolving conflicts in which a neutral third party SELECTION) is asked to choose which side is correct but in which either party may appeal the decision. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT (DOLE) - The executive Protected Class - Any group of people for department of the Philippine government is whom protective legislation has been passed. mandated to formulate policies, programs, and services which aims to promote gainful ❑Republic Act 9710 - Magna Carta of employment opportunities, protect workers, and Women - defines discrimination against women maintain industrial peace. as “any gender-based distinction, exclusion, or restriction which has the effect or purpose of NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS impairing or nullifying the recognition, COMMISION (NLRC) - An agency in the enjoyment, or exercise by women, irrespective Philippines that is vested by law with quasi of their marital status, on a basis of equality of -judicial powers to resolve disputes arising from men and women, of human rights and employer – employee relationships. fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil, or any other field.” CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION (CSC) - a The MCW entitles female employees to the government agency that regulates the following: employment and working conditions of civil 50% of third-level government positions servants in the Philippines. The CSC is At least 40% of government positions on responsible for the policies, plans, and programs development planning and program for civil service employees. implementation. 2 months’ worth of leave benefits with full Grievance System - A process in which an pay for those who require surgery due to employee files a complaint with the organization gynecological issues. and a person or committee within the Employment in the military, police and other organization makes a decision regarding the fields. Women must have the same privileges complaint. and opportunities as their male counterparts. ❑Republic Act 6725 Prohibition on Forcing early retirement. Under the Labor Discrimination Against Women - Specifically, Code, compulsory retirement age is 65 years. this law focuses on women’s rights to fair However, younger employees are allowed to employment. This prevents companies from retire if it is voluntary, and part of a collective hiring on the basis of gender. Discrimination bargaining agreement or contract. also involves promoting and giving opportunities to employees because of their sex. ❑Republic Act 7277: Magna Carta for Disabled Persons - defines PWDs as “those ❑Republic Act 11210: Expanded Maternity suffering from restriction of different abilities, as Leave - Signed in 2019, this law increased the a result of a mental, physical or sensory paid maternity leave from 60 to 105 days. Solo impairment, to perform an activity in the manner mothers have an additional 15 days of paid or within the range considered normal for a maternity leave. Meanwhile, female employees human being.” This law mandates PWDs to can extend their leave for an additional 30 days have access to the following: without pay. Suitable employment, and equal pay, privileges and opportunities The United Nations Refugee Agency uses 5% of positions in the Departments of Social LGBTI (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Welfare and Development, Health, Education, Intersex) as the general term for diverse sexual Culture and Sports, and other government bodies orientations, gender identities, gender engaged in social developments expressions and sex characteristics. People from Employment services like job fairs, coaching the LGBTI community face discrimination in and career counseling their daily lives because they do not conform to Paid leaves such as Maternity, Paternity, Solo society’s gender norms. Parent, the Violence Against Women and their Children, and the Special Leave for Women ❑The Senate Bill 1934: SOGIE Bill was Coverage by the Social Security System (SSS), sponsored for the second time at the senate last PhilHealth and Pag-IBIG. December 2020. It was revised as Senate Bill 1934: Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, ❑Republic Act 10524: An Act Expanding Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics The Positions Reserved For Persons With (SOGIESC) Equality Bill. Disability, Amending For The Purpose Republic Act No. 7277, As Amended, Otherwise Known ❑Republic Act 10911: Anti-Age As The Magna Carta For Persons With Discrimination in Employment Act Disability Under this law, employers are banned from: SEC. 5. Equal Opportunity for Employment Hiring on the basis of age. This includes – No person with disability shall be denied publishing job ads that include age preference access to opportunities for suitable employment. and limitations. A qualified employee with disability shall be Unfair treatment of employees of a certain age subject to the same terms and conditions of in terms of pay, benefits, and other opportunities employment and the same compensation, Requiring jobseekers to state their age or birth privileges, benefits, fringe benefits, incentives or date during the hiring process. allowances as a qualified able bodied person. Turning down applicants because of their age Dismissing an employee because of age ❑Republic Act 11313: Safe Spaces Act related to gender that interferes with an (Bawal Bastos Law) - An Act Defining individual’s work performance. Gender-based Sexual Harassment In Streets, ❑Note: Organizations are also responsible for Public Spaces, Online, Workplaces, And harassment committed by vendors, customers, Educational Or Training Institutions and other third parties. Signed by President Duterte on 2019 ❑Republic Act 7877: Anti-Sexual SEC. 18 – Gender Based Sexual Harassment Harassment Act of 1995 in the Workplace - An act declaring sexual harassment unlawful in the employment, education or training Job Requirement environment, and for other purposes ❑bona fide occupational qualification In a work-related or employment environment, (BFOQ) - A selection requirement that is sexual harassment is committed when: The necessary for the performance of job-related sexual favor is made as a condition in the hiring duties and for which there is no substitute. or in the employment, re-employment or continued employment of said individual, or in ADVERSE IMPACT granting said individual favorable compensation, ❑An employment practice that results in terms, conditions, promotions, or privileges; or members of a protected class being negatively the refusal to grant the sexual favor results in affected at a higher rate than members of the emitting, segregating or classifying the majority class. Adverse impact is usually employee which in any way would discriminate, determined by the four-fifths rule. deprive or diminish employment opportunities Four-fifths rule – when the selection ratio for or otherwise adversely affect said employee. one group (e.g. females) is less than 80% (four-fifths) of the selection ration for another group (e.g. males), adverse impact is said to TO REDUCE AN ORGANIZATION’S exist. LIABILITY FOR SEXUAL HARASSMENT, JACOBS AND KEARNS (2001) ADVISE ❑Job related – the extent to which a test or THE FOLLOWING: measure taps a knowledge, skill, ability, All complaints, no matter how trivial or behavior, or other characteristic needed to far-fetched they appear, must be investigated. successfully perform a job. The organization’s policy must encourage victims to come forward and afford them Harassment - Any unwelcome and offensive multiple channels or sources through which to behavior directed towards an employee that file their complaint. creates a hostile or intimidating working Complaints must be kept confidential to environment. protect both the accused and the accuser. Information from the investigation should be TYPES OF HARASSMENT kept in a file separate from the employee’s personnel file. ❑Quid pro quo – a type of sexual harassment Action must be taken to protect the accuser in which the granting of sexual favors is tied to during the time the complaint is being an employment decision. investigated. Actions might include physically ❑Hostile environment – a type of harassment separating the two parties or limiting the amount characterized by a pattern of unwanted conduct of contact between them.  Both the accused and the accuser must be given due process, and care must be taken to avoid an initial assumption of guilt. The results of the investigation must be communicated in writing to both parties. The severity of the punishment (if any) must match the severity of the violation. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION defined as a set of procedures designed to; eliminate unlawful discrimination among applicants, remedy the results of such prior discrimination, and prevent such discrimination in the future. Involuntary: Government Regulation Involuntary: Court order Voluntary: Consent decree Voluntary: Desire to be a good citizen AFFIRMATIVE ACTION STRATEGIES Monitoring hiring and promotion statistics. Intentional recruitment of minority applicants. Identification and removal of employment practices working against minority applicants and employees. Preferential hiring and promotion of minorities. PRIVACY ISSUES Drug testing Office locker searches Psychological tests Electronic Surveillance