Industrial/Organizational Psychology Past Paper 2023-2024 PDF

INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY PSY 139.1 – BLOCK 1 AY 2023-2024  Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology  Learning Outcomes After this lesson, the student will be able to: 1. Understand how Industrial/Organization Psychology is...

INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY PSY 139.1 – BLOCK 1 AY 2023-2024  Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology  Learning Outcomes After this lesson, the student will be able to: 1. Understand how Industrial/Organization Psychology is different from other field of Psychology 2. Trace back how I/O Psychology started and where it stands today; 3. Gain insights on how the code of ethics for practitioners in the field of psychology applies in I/O Psychology Getting to know activity Sharing Complete Name Nickname The 3 Ps Oneself Share something Personal Something you are Passionate about Something Peculiar about you  Form a group with 4 members and discuss the following: What do you already know about the course? What do you want to know more of? What are your expectations? Group Work What basic macro skills would you like to improve on – speaking, writing, listening, or reading Present your output INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY is a branch of psychology that applies the principles of psychology to the workplace. The purpose of I/O psychology is “to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the organizations they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior” (Rucci, 2008). INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY The application of psychological principles is what best distinguishes I/O psychology from related fields typically taught in business colleges. I/O psychology examines factors that affect the people in an organization INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY I/O psychology relies extensively on research, quantitative methods, and testing techniques. I/O psychologists are trained to use empirical data and statistics rather than intuition to make decisions. the reliance on the scientist- practitioner model INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY From a societal perspective, I/O psychologists can also improve the quality of life by increasing employee effectiveness, which reduces the cost of goods sold by improving product quality. MAJOR FIELDS OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY INDUSTRIAL APPROACH focuses on determining the competencies needed to perform a job, staffing the organization with employees who have those competencies, and increasing those competencies through training. ORGANIZATIONAL APPROACH creates an organizational structure and culture that will motivate employees to perform well, give them the necessary information to do their jobs, and provide working conditions that are safe and result in an enjoyable and satisfying work/life environment. ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY are concerned with the issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee motivation, organizational communication, conflict management, organizational change, and group processes within an organization. PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY study and practice in such areas as analyzing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees, and evaluating employee performance. ERGONOMICS/HUMAN FACTORS concentrate on workplace design, human machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress. BRIEF HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY  I/O psychology was born in the early 1900s. when Walter Dill Scott wrote The Theory of Advertising, in when Scott wrote the book Increasing Human Efficiency in which psychology was first applied to business; Business (Koppes & Pickren, 2007). 1910 1903 1911 when Hugo Münsterberg wrote Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, which was first published in English in 1913;  1918 - I/O psychology made its first big impact during World War I. Because of the large number of soldiers who had to be assigned to various units within the armed forces, I/O psychologists were employed to test recruits and then place them in appropriate positions. An intelligence test developed during World War I and used by the army for soldiers who can read. ARMY ALPHA ARMY BETA An intelligence test developed during World War I and used by the army for soldiers who cannot read. 1920 – Thomas Edison created a 163-item knowledge test that he administered to over 900 applicants. 1921 - First Ph.D. in I/O psychology awarded to Bruce Moore and Merrill Ream at Carnegie Tech 1930s, I/O psychology greatly expanded its scope. Until then, it had been involved primarily in personnel issues such as the selection and placement of employees.  Two of the most interesting figures in the early years of I/O psychology were the husband and wife team of Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth. The Gilbreths were among the first, if not the first, scientists to improve productivity and reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by workers.  Hawthorne Studies A series of studies, conducted at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, Illinois, that have come to represent any change in behavior when people react to a change in the environment. Hawthorne Effect When employees change their behavior due solely to the fact that they are receiving attention or are being observed.  The 1960s were characterized by the passage of several major pieces of civil rights legislation, These laws focused the attention of HR professionals on developing fair selection techniques. As a result, the need for I/O psychologists greatly increased. The 1960s were also characterized by the use of sensitivity training and T-groups (laboratory training groups) for managers  The 1970s brought great strides in the understanding of many organizational psychology issues that involved employee satisfaction and motivation. The decade also saw the development of many theories about employee behavior in organizations. B. F. Skinner’s (1971) Beyond Freedom and Dignity resulted in the increased use of behavior- modification techniques in organizations. The 1980s and 1990s brought four major changes to I/O psychology. 1. The first involved an increased use of fairly sophisticated statistical techniques and methods of analysis. 2. The application of cognitive psychology to industry. 3. The increased interest in the effects of work on family life and leisure activities 4. I/O psychologists took a renewed interest in developing methods to select employees.  Other changes during the 1980s and 1990s that had significant effects on I/O psychology included massive organizational downsizing, greater concern for diversity and gender issues, an aging workforce, increased concern about the effects of stress, and the increased emphasis on such organizational development interventions as total quality management (TQM), reengineering, and employee empowerment  In the 2000s, perhaps the greatest influence on I/O psychology is the rapid advances in technology. Another important factor impacting I/O psychology is the changing demographic makeup of the workforce The global economy is also affecting the role of I/O psychology Other factors that are currently impacting I/O psychology include high unemployment rates, movements toward flexible work schedules, family- friendly work policies, accommodation of an increasing number of employees with child-care and elder-care responsibilities, flatter organizational structures with fewer management levels, population shifts from urban to suburban locations, and increasing costs of health-care benefits. EMPLOYMENT OF I/O PSYCHOLOGIST EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND TYPES OF PROGRAM  Although people with bachelor’s degrees can find employment in the HRM field, having a master’s or doctoral degree certainly increases employment and career opportunities. Obtaining a master’s degree in I/O psychology takes between one and two years after the completion of a bachelor’s degree. PSYCHOLOGIST - Masters Degree in Psychology (2-3 years) Clinical Internship (200 hours) Pass the BLEPP or Board and Licensure Examination for Psychologist and Psychometrician Obtain approximate 3-5 years of experience to specific area of specialty Satisfy all requirements to be certified by PAP Conducts psychotherapy (different psychological intervention)  Internship - A situation in which a student works for an organization, either for pay or as a volunteer, to receive practical work experience. Answering Questions and Making Decisions Research and Everyday Life Common Sense Is Often Wrong WHY CONDUCT RESEARCH?  Ideas, Hypotheses, and Theories Considerations Hypothesis - An educated prediction about the answer to a research question. in Conducting Theory - A systematic set of assumptions regarding the cause and Research nature of behavior Considerations in Conducting Research Literature Reviews Journals - A written collection of articles describing the methods and results of new research Trade magazines - A collection of articles for those “in the biz,” about related professional topics, seldom directly reporting the methods and results of new research. Magazines - An unscientific collection of articles about a wide range of topics. Considerations in Conducting Research The Location of the Study Laboratory research One disadvantage of laboratory research is external validity, or generalizability, of results to organizations in the “real world.” Field research - Research conducted in a natural setting as opposed to a laboratory Considerations in Conducting Research The Location of the Study Informed consent - The formal process by which subjects give permission to be included in a study Institutional review boards - A committee designated to ensure the ethical treatment of research subjects “confidentiality”. The Research Method to be Used Experiments A type of research study in which the independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter. Two characteristics define an experiment: (1) manipulation of one or more independent variables and (2) random assignment of subjects to experimental and control conditions The Research Method to be Used Experimental Research 1. Independent Variable 2. Dependent Variable 3. Experimental Group 4. Control Group The Research Method to be Used Quasi - Experiments Research method in which the experimenter either does not manipulate the independent variable or in which subjects are not randomly assigned to conditions. Archival Research Research that involves the use of previously collected data. Survey Subject Sample Probability Sampling Non - Probability Sampling Convenience Sampling Purposive sampling  Debriefed - Informing the subject in an experiment about the Running the purpose of the study in which he or she was a participant and providing any other relevant information. Study  Ethics in I/O Psychology In a Type A In a Type B dilemma, there dilemma, also is a high level called of uncertainty rationalizing as to what is dilemmas, right or wrong, Usually, there appears individuals know to be no best what is right but solution, and choose the there are both solution that is positive and most negative advantageous to consequences themselves. to a decision Quiz no. 1 1. Apply knowledge of human capabilities and requirements to the design of work devices, systems, and the physical work setting in order to make these devices “user-friendly” A. Industrial/Organizational Psychology B. Human Resource Management C. Time and Motion Studies D. Ergonomics 2. The field of psychology involving the study and practice in such areas as analyzing jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees, and evaluating performance. A. Industrial Psychology B. Personnel Psychology C. Organizational Psychology D. Ergonomics 3. Which psychological phenomenon happens if people work harder and perform better in response to their awareness of being observe in a study or experiment. A. Hawthorne Effect B. Flynn Effect C. Spotlight Effect D. Pygmalion Effect 4. It focuses on determining the competencies needed to perform a job, staffing the organization with employees who have those competencies, and increasing those competencies through training A. Industrial Approach B. Organizational Approach C. Personnel Approach D. Human Factors 5. He believe that advertising was primarily a persuasive tool, rather than an informational device. And that advertising had its effect on consumers in a nearly hypnotic manner. A. B.F Skinner B. Walter Dill Scott C. Frank Gilbreth D. Lillian Moller Gilbreth 6. An intelligence test developed during World War I and used by the army for soldiers who can read. A. Army Beta B. Army Alpha C. 163-item knowledge test D. Stanford- Binet Test 7. It resulted in the increased use of behavior-modification techniques in organizations. A. Time- and- motion study B. Increasing Human Efficiency C. Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, D. Beyond Freedom and Dignity 8. there is a high level of uncertainty as to what is right or wrong, there appears to be no best solution, and there are both positive and negative consequences to a decision. A. Type A dilemma B. Type B dilemma C. Type C dilemma D. Type D dilemma 9. Research design that measures naturally occurring association between two or more variables A. Experimental Research B. Field Research C. Correlational Research D. Case Studies 10. Every member of the population has a known chance of being included in the sample A. Probability Sampling B. Purposive Sampling C. Snowball Sampling D. Non-Probability Sampling Chapter 2 Learning Objectives 1. Understand the definition and uses of Job analysis 2. Know how to write a job description 3. Know how to conduct a job analysis 4. Learn when to use various job analysis methods 5. Understand the concept of job evaluation 6. Understand the concept of pay equity What is Job analysis? Job analysis is defined as “a systematic process for collecting and analyzing information about a job” (Goodstein and Gamble Jr, 2009) The foundation for all human resource activities and the process of describing the duties and responsibilities that go with the jobs, and grouping similar positions into categories. Aspects of analyzing jobs 1. Task or work activities – a task statement is the indication of the action to be performed and the result of the expected action. 2. Knowledge, Skills, Abilities (KSA) needed for the job.  KSAOs An organized The proficiency in The present Includes body of capacity to execute personal factors information, the manual, verbal a job action, to as personality, usually a factual or mental perform a job willingness, or procedural function by interest and nature that manipulation of applying an motivation and when applied people, ideas or underlying such tangible makes the things successful knowledge base factors as performance of and the necessary license, degrees the job action skills and years of possible simultaneously experience Aspects of analyzing jobs 3. Levels of performance- refers to the expected range of performance required for the job and; 4. Workplace characteristics – this pertains to the characteristics of the work environment that may have a bearing on the job performance  Uses of Job analysis & job analysis is used as a criteria for selecting the most suitable applicant for a certain position. Also known as employee selection  Uses of Job analysis It can be used to determine the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for the position and use as basis for the training and development of an employee  Uses of Job analysis Personpower planning Job analysis is used to determine worker mobility within the organization. A policy of many organizations to promote the employee who performs the best in the job.  The idea that the organizations tend to promote good employers until they reach the level at which they are not competent- in other words, their highest level of incompetence  Uses of Job analysis The construction of appraisal instrument (Roch & Williams, 2012). The evaluation of the employee performance must be job related. It can also can be used to help determine levels of performance as well as the basis for determining pay levels.  Uses of Job analysis Job analysis enables a human resources professional to classify jobs into groups based on similarities in requirements and duties. Job classification is useful for determining pay levels, transfers, and promotions.  Uses of Job analysis Job analysis information can also be used to determine the worth of a job. Uses of Job analysis The process of linking specific tasks to specific jobs and deciding what techniques, equipment and procedures should be used to perform those tasks. Early approaches: ❖ Scientific Management ❖ Job enlargement ❖ Job enrichment Uses of Job analysis Compliance with legal Guidelines Any employment decision must be based on job-related information. Job analysis is used to ensure all HR decisions are free from discrimination and are based purely on job specifications.  Uses of Job analysis Organizational Analysis Is the process of evaluating systematically an organization’s capabilities which can give it a competitive advantage Evaluating organizational performance  A job description is one of the most useful results of a job analysis. It is a relatively short summary of a job and should be about two to five pages in length. It must describe a job in enough detail that decisions about activities such as selection and training can be made. Writing a job description The job description must have the following details: Job Title – must describe the nature of the job; an accurate title also aids in employee selection and recruitment. It can also affect the perceptions of the status and worth of the job Writing a job description  Writing a job description The job description must have the following details: Brief Summary - need be only a paragraph in length but should briefly describe the nature and purpose of the job. This summary can be used in help-wanted advertisements, internal job postings, and company brochures. Writing a job description  Writing a job description Work Activities - Lists the tasks and activities in which the worker is involved ; should be organized into meaningful categories to make the job description easy to read and understand. Writing a job description  Writing a job description Tools and Equipment Used - information in this section is used primarily for employee selection and training Writing a job description  Writing a job description Job Context - describes the environment in which the employee works (stress level, work schedule, physical demands, level of responsibility, temperature, number of co-workers, degree of danger, and any other relevant information) Writing a job description  Writing a job description Work Performance - This section contains a relatively brief description of how an employee’s performance is evaluated and what work standards are expected of the employee  Writing a job description Compensation Information - This section of the job description should contain information on the salary grade, but the actual salary should not be written in the job description.  Writing a job description Job Competencies - These are the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) such as interest, personality, and training that are necessary to be successful on the job. How Often Should a Job Description Be Updated? A job description should be updated if a job changes significantly. Job Crafting – the informal changes that employees make in their jobs (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). That is, it is common for employees to quietly expand the scope of their jobs to add tasks they want to perform and to remove tasks that they don’t want to perform.  Considerations in selecting participants Job Competence – high performing employees generated different job analysis outcomes than did low-performing employees. Race – researchers reported small but significant differences in a way in which African American incumbents viewed their jobs.  Considerations in selecting participants Gender – Landy and Vasey (1991) found possible differences in the ways men and women viewed their jobs, because gender was confounded by experience. Education level – found that police officers with only a high school diploma were less involved in court activities than were their more educated counterparts.  Considerations in selecting participants Personality – researchers found that the personality of the incumbent was related to the personality traits rated by the incumbent to be important to the job. Viewpoint – it should be no surprise that people with different perspectives on the job produce different job analysis.  Conducting a Job Analysis Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed Identify the major job dimensions and the tasks performed for each dimension, the tools and equipment used to perform the tasks, and the conditions under which the tasks are performed. I. Gathering Existing Information - job descriptions, task inventories, and training manuals II. Interviewing Subject Matter Experts (SME)- SMEs are people who are knowledgeable about the job and include job incumbents, supervisors, customers, and upper-level management; can be individual or group  Conducting a Job Analysis Guidelines in Interviewing SMEs 1. Prepare for the interview by announcing the job analysis to the employees well advance by selecting a quiet and private interview location 2. Open by establishing rapport, putting the workers at ease, and explaining the purpose of the interview 3. Conduct the interview by asking open ended questions that is easy to understand and allowing sufficient time for the employee to answer.  Conducting a Job Analysis Ammerman technique A job analysis method in which a group of job experts identifies the objectives and standards to be met by the ideal worker The basic steps for the Ammerman technique are as follows: 1. Convene a panel of experts that includes representatives from all levels of the organization. 2. Have the panel identify the objectives and standards that are to be met by the ideal incumbent. 3. Have the panel list the specific behaviors necessary for each objective or standard to be attained. 4. Have the panel identify which of the behaviors from step 3 are “critical” to reaching the objective. 5. Have the panel rank-order the objectives on the basis of importance  Observing Incumbents – This method lets the job analyst to actually see the worker do her job and thus obtain information that the worker may have forgotten to mention during the interview. Job Participation – analyzing job by actually performing it.  Step 2: Write Task Statements A properly written task statement must contain an action (what is done) and an object (to which the action is done). Often, task statements will also include such components as where the task is done, how it is done, why it is done, and when it is done. Statements should be written at a level that can be read and understood by a person with the same reading ability as the typical job incumbent.  Step 2: Write Task Statements Should be written in the same tense. Should include the tools and equipment used to complete the task should not be competencies (e.g., “Be a good writer”) nor a policy (e.g., “Treats people nicely”). For those activities that involve decision making, the level of authority should be indicated. Task Inventory A questionnaire containing a list of tasks each which the job incumbent rates on a series of scales such as importance and time spent  Step 3: Rate Task Statements - using a group of SMEs to rate each task statement on the frequency and the importance or criticality of the task being performed. Task analysis- the process of identifying the task for which employees need to be trained  Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs. A knowledge is a body of information needed to perform a task. A skill is the proficiency to perform a learned task. An ability is a basic capacity for performing a wide range of different tasks, acquiring a knowledge, or developing a skill. Other characteristics include such personal factors as personality, willingness, interest, and motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, and years of experience.  Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs Determining the best methods to tap the KSAOs needed at the time of hire. These methods will be used to select new employees and include such methods as interviews, work samples, ability tests, personality tests, reference checks, integrity tests, biodata, and assessment centers.  Using Other Job Analysis Methods I. Methods Providing General Information About Worker Activities A. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) a structured instrument developed at Purdue University by McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham (1972) contains 194 items organized into six main dimensions: information input, mental processes, work output, relationships with other persons, job context, and other job-related variables such as work schedule, pay, and responsibility. the level of analysis is fairly general B. Job Structure Profile (JSP) A revised version of the PAQ that was developed by Patrick and Moore (1985) includes item content and style, new items to increase the discriminatory power of the intellectual and decision-making dimensions, and an emphasis on having a job analyst, rather than the incumbent, use the JSP. C. Job Elements Inventory (JEI) developed by Cornelius and Hakel (1978) contains 153 items and has a readability level appropriate for an employee with only a tenth- grade education FJA D. Functional Job Analysis (FJA) designed by Fine (1955) as a quick method that could be used by the federal government to analyze and compare thousands of jobs. Rates the extent to which a job incumbent is involved with functions in the categories of data, people and things Methods Providing Information About Tools and Equipment A. Job Components Inventory (JCI) Consists of more than 400 questions covering five major categories: tools and equipment, perceptual and physical requirements, mathematical requirements, communication requirements, and decision making and responsibility. It is the only job analysis method containing a detailed section on tools and equipment.  Methods Providing Information About the Work Environment AET or “Arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahren zur Tatigkeitsanalyse” which means “ergonomic job analysis procedure.” Developed in Germany by Rohmert and Landau (1983), Ergonomic – the instrument is primarily concerned with the relationship between the worker and work objects. Has 216 items Methods Providing Information About Competencies A. Occupational Information Network (O*NET) a major advancement in understanding the nature of work, in large part because its developers understood that jobs can be viewed at four levels: A. Economic B. organizational C. occupational, D. and individual. Methods Providing Information About Competencies Occupational Information Network (O*NET) O*NET includes information about the occupation (generalized work activities, work context, organizational context) and the worker characteristics (ability, work style, occupational values and interests, knowledge, skills, education) needed for success in the occupation.  Methods Providing Information About Competencies Occupational Information Network (O*NET) It also includes information about such economic factors as labor demand, labor supply, salaries, and occupational trends. These are useful for employers to select new employees and by applicants who are searching for careers that match their skills, interests, and economic needs.  B. Critical Incident Technique (CIT) Developed and first used by John Flanagan and his students at the University of Pittsburgh in the late 1940s and early 1950s. used to discover actual incidents of job behavior that make the difference between a job’s successful or unsuccessful performance is an excellent addition to a job analysis but cannot be used as the sole method of job analysis. C. Job Components Inventory (JCI) provides information about the perceptual, physical, mathematical, communication, decision making, and responsibility skills needed to perform the job.  D. Threshold Traits Analysis (TTA) developed by Lopez, Kesselman, and Lopez (1981) This method is available only by hiring a particular consulting firm The questionnaire has 33 items that identify the traits that are necessary for the successful performance of a job. It covers the five trait categories: physical, mental, learned, motivational, and social short and reliable and can correctly identify important traits but not available commercially. its main uses are in the development of an employee selection system or a career plan  E. Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS) requires incumbents or job analysts to view a series of abilities and to rate the level of ability needed to perform the job. easy to use by incumbents or trained analysts, and is supported by years of research. more detailed and is commercially available than TTA  F. Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI) is a 132-item inventory developed by Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, and Plamondon (2000) that taps the extent to which a job incumbent needs to adapt to situations on the job. Eight dimensions: 1) Handling emergencies or crisis situations 2) Handling work stress 3) Solving problems creatively 4) Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations 5) Learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures 6) Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability 7) Demonstrating cultural adaptability 8) Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability  G. Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) was developed by Raymark, Schmit, and Guion (1997) to identify the personality types needed to perform job-related tasks. consists of 107 items tapping 12 personality dimensions that fall under the “Big 5” personality dimensions (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability). PPRF is reliable and shows promise as a useful job analysis instrument for identifying the personality traits necessary to perform a job.  Job Evaluation The process of determining a job’s worth – How much employees in a position should be paid. 2 Stages: A.Determining Internal Pay Equity B.Determining External Pay Equity  Determining Internal Pay Equity - involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that the people in jobs worth the most money are paid accordingly Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors Level of responsibility Physical demands Mental demands Education requirements Training and experience requirements Working conditions Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each Compensable Factor: - Factors such as education are easy to determine. -For factors such as responsibility need a considerable time of discussion to determine the levels for compensation Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights Because some factors are more important than others, weights must be assigned to each factor and to each level within a factor. a. A job evaluation committee determines the total number of points that will be distributed among the factors. Usually, the number is some multiple of 100 (for example, 100, 500, 1,000) b. Each factor is weighted by assigning a number of points. B. Determining External Pay Equity - the worth of a job is determined by comparing the job to the external market or other organizations.; Important to attract and retain employees.  Salary survey - a questionnaire sent to other organizations to see how much they are paying their employees in positions similar to those in the organization sending the survey Direct Compensation – the amount of money paid to an employee (does not count benefits, time off, and so forth) Determining a Sex and Race Equity - pay audits should also be conducted to ensure that employees are not paid differently on the basis of gender or race 2 Types of Audits that has to be conducted: 1. identical duties (equal pay for equal work) 2. similar worth and responsibility (comparable worth) Comparable worth – the idea that jobs requiring the same level of skill and responsibility should be paid the same regardless of supply and demand