Indigenous Studies Final Exam Review PDF

Unit 1: Introduction to Indigenous Studies Key Terms Defined through an Indigenous Studies Lens (continued) ​ Method: Indigenous research methods emphasize the integration of Indigenous ways of knowing and doing, such as community engagement, oral traditions, and participatory actio...

Unit 1: Introduction to Indigenous Studies Key Terms Defined through an Indigenous Studies Lens (continued) ​ Method: Indigenous research methods emphasize the integration of Indigenous ways of knowing and doing, such as community engagement, oral traditions, and participatory action. ​ Methodology: Indigenous methodologies prioritize collaboration, relationship-building, and decolonization, contrasting with traditional Western research methods. ​ Qualitative Research: This research emphasizes understanding the experiences, cultures, and lives of Indigenous peoples through interviews, storytelling, and other narrative-based methods. ​ Quantitative Research: This involves data collection through numbers and statistics, which can be applied to issues such as land use, health disparities, and demographics within Indigenous communities. ​ Insurgent Research Methodology: This methodology challenges colonial research frameworks, focusing on the empowerment of Indigenous communities by using Indigenous knowledge systems and prioritizing community-driven research agendas. ​ Tribal Epistemology: This term reflects the study of knowledge as it is understood within Indigenous cultures. It encompasses spiritual beliefs, oral histories, traditions, and community-specific worldviews. ​ Ontology: In Indigenous contexts, ontology relates to understanding being and existence in ways that are interconnected with nature, community, and spirituality. ​ Axiology: This refers to values and ethics. In Indigenous epistemologies, it stresses the importance of respect for all living things, reciprocity in relationships, and communal well-being. ​ Indigenous: Refers to the original inhabitants of a region, with specific cultural, historical, and spiritual ties to the land. ​ First Nations: Indigenous peoples in Canada, not including Métis or Inuit, with diverse cultures, languages, and histories. ​ Métis: A distinct group of Indigenous people with mixed European and Indigenous ancestry, with their own language (Michif) and cultural practices. ​ Inuit: Indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, and Alaska, with unique cultures, languages, and histories. ​ Aboriginal: A collective term used to refer to the Indigenous peoples of Canada, which includes First Nations, Métis, and Inuit. ​ Native American: The Indigenous peoples of the United States, including various tribes and nations with unique cultural identities. Unit 2: Pre-contact Period: Origins, World Views & Culture Key Terms Defined  ​ Kelp Forest: Underwater forests found in coastal areas, particularly along the Pacific Coast. Kelp forests are significant in many Indigenous cultures, especially for the food, tools, and medicines they provide. ​ Beringia: A land bridge that once connected Asia and North America during the Ice Age. It is believed to be the route through which the ancestors of Native Americans migrated. ​ Angakoks (Shaman): Spiritual healers or leaders within many Indigenous Arctic communities, particularly in Inuit and other northern traditions. ​ Coppers: Metal plates used in the Northwest Coast cultures, often as symbols of wealth, status, or for ceremonial purposes. ​ Kaianeraserakowa (Great Law of Peace): A constitution followed by the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy) that promotes peace, unity, and governance. ​ Travois: A frame used by Indigenous peoples of the Plains, typically used for transporting goods and tools. It is often attached to horses or dogs. ​ Pit Houses: Semi-subterranean homes traditionally used by Indigenous peoples in cold regions, particularly the Arctic and Subarctic, providing insulation from harsh winters. The 5 W's for Key Topics in Unit 2 1.​ Coastal Migration Theory ○​ Who: Ancient peoples migrating from Asia to North America. ○​ What: A theory that suggests the first inhabitants of the Americas came by following the coastlines. ○​ Where: Along the Pacific coasts of North America. ○​ When: Approximately 15,000 years ago. ○​ Why: The theory proposes migration along the coasts due to the availability of resources. 2.​ Bering Strait Theory ○​ Who: Ancient people from Siberia. ○​ What: The theory posits that humans migrated across the Bering Strait during the Ice Age when sea levels were lower. ○​ Where: The Bering Strait, between Siberia and Alaska. ○​ When: Around 20,000-12,000 years ago. ○​ Why: To explain the migration of peoples into the Americas. 3.​ Clovis First Hypothesis ○​ Who: Early humans in the Americas. ○​ What: A theory that the Clovis culture was the first to inhabit the Americas. ○​ Where: North America, particularly in the area that is now the United States. ○​ When: Around 13,000 years ago. ○​ Why: It was originally believed that the Clovis people were the first to arrive in North America. 4.​ Six Nations Confederacy ○​ Who: Six Indigenous nations: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora.  ○​ What: A political and social alliance formed for mutual defense and governance. ○​ Where: Primarily in the northeastern United States and parts of Canada. ○​ When: Established around the 12th century. ○​ Why: To strengthen political unity and resist external threats. Unit 3: Perspectives on First Contact with Europeans Key Terms Defined ​ Potlatch: A gift-giving feast practiced by Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest. It serves as a way to demonstrate wealth, social status, and reaffirm social ties. ​ Great Law of Peace: The constitution of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, emphasizing peace, unity, and governance. ​ Many Lodges Gathering: Likely refers to a cultural or ceremonial gathering of Indigenous groups, symbolizing unity and shared customs. ​ Thule Period: The time period (circa 1000-1600 CE) during which the Thule people, ancestors of the modern Inuit, developed their culture and way of life in the Arctic. ​ People of the Dawn: A term sometimes used to describe the Indigenous peoples of the northeastern Americas or the first humans who arrived on the continent. The 5 W's for Key Topics in Unit 3 1.​ Mi'kmaq Contact ○​ Who: The Mi'kmaq people and European settlers (mainly French). ○​ What: The early contact between Mi'kmaq peoples and European colonizers, including trade and alliances. ○​ Where: Eastern Canada, particularly the Maritimes. ○​ When: Early 1600s. ○​ Why: For trade, exploration, and to establish alliances in the face of colonial expansion. 2.​ Haudenosaunee Contact ○​ Who: The Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) and European settlers (mainly French and English). ○​ What: Contact with Europeans involved alliances, trade, and conflict, especially with the French and later the English. ○​ Where: Northeastern North America, particularly in what is now the United States and Canada. ○​ When: 1600s onward. ○​ Why: To manage relationships with European settlers and secure territory and resources. Concepts Explained ​ The Three Parts of the Spark of Life: In many Indigenous worldviews, life is believed to be made of three essential elements—spirit, body, and mind—each interconnected and contributing to the vitality of all living things. ​ Significance of Oolican Oil: Oolican (or eulachon) oil is a crucial resource for many Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, providing food, nutrition, and ceremonial value. ​ Food Introduced to Other Continents After Contact: The Columbian Exchange led to the movement of crops such as maize, potatoes, and tomatoes from the Americas to Europe, transforming global diets. ​ Diseases Introduced to Turtle Island: European colonization brought diseases like smallpox, influenza, and measles, which devastated Indigenous populations who had no immunity. Unit 4: The Changing Relationships During the Fur Trade Key Terms Defined ​ North West Company: A major fur trading company in Canada that competed with the Hudson’s Bay Company, often working closely with Indigenous trappers and communities. ​ Hudson’s Bay Company: One of the oldest and most powerful fur trading companies in Canada, playing a key role in shaping Indigenous-European relationships. ​ Mackenzie Inuit: Refers to the Inuit groups who were involved in the fur trade in the Mackenzie region of Canada. ​ Wattap: Likely refers to a type of trade or hunting equipment used in the fur trade. The 5 W's for Key Topics in Unit 4 1.​ George Bonga ○​ Who: George Bonga, an African-American fur trader of mixed heritage. ○​ What: He was a prominent figure in the fur trade, especially known for his ties to the Ojibwe people and role in the North West Company. ○​ Where: In the Great Lakes region, particularly near the Mississippi River. ○​ When: Early 19th century. ○​ Why: George Bonga played a critical role in bridging the gap between Indigenous and European cultures through trade and diplomacy. Unit 5: Indigenous-Colonial Wars Key Terms Defined ​ Beaver War Thesis: A historical theory suggesting that the wars between Indigenous nations, particularly in the 17th century, were largely driven by the competition for control of the fur trade, with the beaver fur trade as a central factor. ​ Pemoussa: A term used to describe a significant historical or cultural figure in some Indigenous communities. (Further research would be needed to specify the exact cultural significance in context.) The 5 W's for Key Topics in Unit 5 1.​ Fox Wars ○​ Who: The Fox, also known as the Meskwaki, and the French colonizers, along with their Indigenous allies. ○​ What: A series of conflicts primarily caused by territorial and trading disputes, including issues surrounding the fur trade. ○​ Where: Great Lakes region, particularly around Michigan and Wisconsin. ○​ When: 1712–1733. ○​ Why: The wars were largely driven by competition over resources, including the fur trade, and the displacement of the Fox people by French settlers and their Indigenous allies. 2.​ Iroquois War ○​ Who: The Iroquois Confederacy and other Indigenous groups in the region, alongside European powers (mainly the French). ○​ What: A series of conflicts primarily involving territorial disputes and competition over trade routes. ○​ Where: Northeastern North America, particularly in areas now known as New York, Ontario, and Quebec. ○​ When: Early to mid-17th century. ○​ Why: The Iroquois sought control of trade routes and territories, often clashing with the French and their Indigenous allies. 3.​ Mi'kmaq War ○​ Who: The Mi'kmaq people and the British colonists. ○​ What: Conflicts arising from British attempts to expand their territory into Mi'kmaq lands, along with competition for fur trading and resource control. ○​ Where: Atlantic Canada, primarily the Maritimes. ○​ When: 1749–1761. ○​ Why: The wars were rooted in British colonial expansion and attempts to control Indigenous lands and resources, including the fur trade.  4.​ Denonville Expedition ○​ Who: French forces under Governor Denonville and the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy). ○​ What: A French military campaign aimed at weakening the Iroquois Confederacy and preventing further attacks on French settlements. ○​ Where: The Great Lakes region and parts of New York. ○​ When: 1687. ○​ Why: The French sought to destroy the Iroquois as part of their broader strategy to control the fur trade and protect their colonial interests. 5.​ French-Indian Alliance System ○​ Who: French settlers and various Indigenous nations, such as the Huron, Algonquin, and others. ○​ What: A series of military and trade alliances formed between the French and several Indigenous groups. ○​ Where: Primarily in the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River regions. ○​ When: 17th and 18th centuries. ○​ Why: To protect French colonial interests and gain advantages in trade and warfare against British settlers and their Indigenous allies. Concepts Explained ​ Issues with the Publication The Jesuit Relations: The Jesuit Relations were a series of reports written by Jesuit missionaries during their time in New France (Canada). The issue with these reports is that they often misrepresented or misinterpreted Indigenous cultures, religions, and practices to align with European Christian values. ​ French Slavery: Indigenous peoples, particularly in New France, were often involved in the fur trade with French settlers. Some Indigenous individuals were enslaved, especially in the context of intertribal warfare and French colonial exploitation. ​ Champlain's Military Alliances: Samuel de Champlain, the French explorer and founder of Quebec, established military alliances with several Indigenous nations, such as the Huron-Wendat, to secure French interests in North America. These alliances were key to the French strategy of defending against the Iroquois and expanding trade networks. Unit 6: Government Policy Period: French/British to Canadian Indian Policy Key Terms Defined ​ Bill C-31: A Canadian federal law passed in 1985 that aimed to address discrimination in the Indian Act regarding gender and enfranchisement, allowing Indigenous women who had married non-Indigenous men to regain their status.  ​ Enfranchisement: A policy that sought to assimilate Indigenous peoples into Canadian society by encouraging them to give up their Indian status and become full Canadian citizens, which often resulted in the loss of land rights. ​ John Brandt: Likely refers to a historical figure significant in Indigenous or colonial history, although further context would be needed to fully explain his role. ​ Wabasha: Likely refers to a leader or notable figure in one of the Indigenous tribes, particularly in relation to the fur trade or territorial conflicts. The 5 W's for Key Topics in Unit 6 1.​ Tecumseh ○​ Who: Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader and warrior. ○​ What: Tecumseh united a confederacy of Indigenous nations to resist the encroachment of settlers on Indigenous lands. ○​ Where: Primarily the Ohio Valley, but also in present-day Canada. ○​ When: 1768–1813. ○​ Why: Tecumseh sought to protect Indigenous sovereignty and resist colonial expansion by European settlers. 2.​ The Royal Proclamation ○​ Who: Issued by King George III. ○​ What: A proclamation that established guidelines for European settlement in North America and recognized Indigenous land rights in the areas covered by the proclamation. ○​ Where: British colonies in North America, particularly in the area of Canada. ○​ When: 1763. ○​ Why: To stabilize relations between British settlers and Indigenous peoples after the Seven Years' War and prevent further conflicts over land. 3.​ Gradual Enfranchisement Act ○​ Who: Indigenous peoples in Canada, especially those subject to the Indian Act. ○​ What: A policy aimed at assimilating Indigenous peoples by encouraging them to voluntarily relinquish their Indian status. ○​ Where: Canada. ○​ When: Introduced in the 19th century, continuing until the mid-20th century. ○​ Why: The policy was part of broader efforts to assimilate Indigenous peoples into Canadian society and to diminish their distinct legal status. 4.​ Manitoba Act ○​ Who: The Government of Canada and the Métis people. ○​ What: The Act that created the province of Manitoba and addressed Métis land rights following the Red River Resistance. ○​ Where: In what is now Manitoba, Canada. ○​ When: 1870. ○​ Why: To settle land disputes and provide a framework for the entry of Manitoba into Confederation. Concepts Explained ​ Implications of the Indian Act Divisions: The Indian Act divided Indigenous peoples based on who was recognized as "status" or "non-status," creating a hierarchical system of rights and resources that reinforced colonial power dynamics. ​ Indian Act Amendments 1876-1950: The Indian Act underwent numerous amendments that further entrenched colonial control over Indigenous peoples, limiting their rights and autonomy, and controlling land, governance, and cultural practices. ​ Crown Avoiding Métis Recognition: The Crown's reluctance to recognize the Métis as a distinct group with legal rights created ongoing tensions, particularly regarding land claims and treaty rights. ​ Inuit Relocations: The Canadian government relocated many Inuit communities in the mid-20th century to more northern and remote regions, often without consent, under the premise of sovereignty and resource control. ​ Impact of the Royal Proclamation on Manitoba Métis Federation Supreme Court Case: The Royal Proclamation recognized Indigenous land rights, but over time, it was ignored or undermined, leading to legal battles such as the one involving the Manitoba Métis Federation, where the court ruled on the failure of the government to honor promises made in the Act. Unit 7: The Métis Period: Métis Identity, Repression & Resistance Key Terms Defined ​ Section 31 of the Manitoba Act: This section of the Manitoba Act granted land to Métis families, but its execution was flawed, leading to unmet promises for land and a basis for later resistance. ​ Section 32 of the Manitoba Act: Related to the rights and protections for Métis land holdings. ​ “Logic of Elimination”: A colonial mindset that sought to erase Indigenous cultures, identities, and societies through policies like assimilation and land dispossession. ​ Métis: A distinct Indigenous group with mixed European (primarily French) and Indigenous (Cree, Ojibwe, etc.) ancestry, with their own culture, language (Michif), and history. ​ Powley Test: A legal test used in Canada to determine the rights of Métis individuals to hunt and fish in their traditional territories. ​ Capote: A type of traditional Métis fur-trading coat, often made from wool and worn by Métis men during the fur trade era. ​ Métis Flag: A symbol of Métis identity, featuring a blue background with a white infinity symbol, representing the unity of the Métis people. The 5 W's for Key Topics in Unit 7 1.​ Annie Bannatyne ○​ Who: Annie Bannatyne, an important Métis figure. ○​ What: Known for her involvement in the Métis community and role in early Métis activism. ○​ Where: Manitoba. ○​ When: 19th century. ○​ Why: Her work contributed to the shaping of Métis identity during a time of great change in Canadian history. 2.​ Dorothy Chartrand ○​ Who: Dorothy Chartrand, an important Métis leader or activist. ○​ What: Known for her contributions to the Métis community and the advocacy for Métis rights and culture. ○​ Where: Primarily in the Prairie provinces, such as Manitoba. ○​ When: 20th century. ○​ Why: Chartrand’s work helped to bring Métis issues into the public sphere and strengthen Métis identity. 3.​ Victoria Calihoo ○​ Who: Victoria Calihoo, an important figure in Métis history. ○​ What: She was one of the prominent Métis women who contributed to the resistance and cultural preservation during a time of repression. ○​ Where: In the Canadian prairies, likely Alberta and Saskatchewan. ○​ When: 19th and 20th centuries. ○​ Why: Calihoo was involved in the Métis struggle for recognition and rights in a period when Métis were marginalized. 4.​ Louis Riel ○​ Who: Louis Riel, a Métis leader, and founder of the province of Manitoba. ○​ What: Riel led the Red River Rebellion and the North-West Rebellion, fighting for Métis rights and resistance against Canadian government policies. ○​ Where: Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and other parts of Western Canada. ○​ When: 1844–1885. ○​ Why: Riel is considered the "father" of the Métis nation and was crucial in protecting Métis rights and fighting for land and recognition in Canada. 5.​ Victory of Frog Plain (Battle of Seven Oaks) ○​ Who: Métis forces, led by Cuthbert Grant, and the Red River settlers, led by Governor Robert Semple. ○​ What: The Battle of Seven Oaks was a significant conflict between the Métis and the Red River settlers in 1816, centered around control of the fur trade and land rights. ○​ Where: Near Fort Douglas (modern-day Winnipeg), in Manitoba. ○​ When: June 19, 1816.  ○​ Why: The battle was driven by tensions between the Métis, who were fighting for their land and economic rights, and the British-backed settlers. Concepts Explained ​ Decline of the Buffalo Hunt: The buffalo hunt was essential to Métis life and culture, as they relied on buffalo for food, clothing, and tools. The decline of the buffalo population due to overhunting by European settlers and the Canadian government severely impacted the Métis economy and way of life. ​ Forcefield of Settler Colonialism: This concept refers to the oppressive systems that settlers used to control and eliminate Indigenous populations and cultures, which includes the Métis. The "forcefield" is a metaphor for the external pressures (settlers, government policies) faced by Indigenous and Métis communities in maintaining their identities. ​ Historians Neglecting Stories of Women: The contributions of Métis women, especially in the fur trade, resistance movements, and family life, have often been overlooked in historical accounts. Their roles were central to Métis culture and survival, and their stories are vital in understanding Métis identity. ​ Roles of Women at Fur Trade Forts: Métis women played crucial roles in the fur trade, including processing furs, trading goods, and maintaining households. Many Métis women were also involved in intermarriage and cultural exchange, which strengthened the Métis identity. ​ Why Saying Métis Are Mixed Is Inaccurate: The Métis are a distinct Indigenous people with their own cultural identity, language (Michif), and heritage, formed through the intermarriage of European settlers and Indigenous peoples. Referring to them merely as "mixed" fails to recognize their unique and independent cultural identity. Unit 8: Land Dispossession: Treaties & Scrip Key Terms Defined ​ Treaty Right: A right or privilege guaranteed by an agreement (treaty) between Indigenous peoples and the Crown or government, such as the right to hunt, fish, or live on certain lands. ​ Treaty Adhesion: The process by which Indigenous groups formally agree to join an existing treaty that was negotiated by another group, often after initial treaties were signed. ​ Two-Row Wampum: A symbolic treaty agreement between the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) and European settlers, representing peaceful co-existence and mutual respect while maintaining each group’s distinct ways of life.  ​ Kiciwamanawak: A term that refers to something significant in certain Indigenous languages or cultures. Further context is needed for its precise definition. ​ Bimaadiziwin: A term from Anishinaabe philosophy meaning "the good life" or a holistic way of living that aligns with balance, respect, and responsibility in all aspects of life. ​ Gdoo-naaganina: Likely refers to a traditional Anishinaabe concept related to leadership or governance. Further clarification is needed for its precise meaning. ​ British North America Act: The law passed by the British Parliament in 1867 that created the Dominion of Canada, which also established the legislative foundation for the relationship between Indigenous peoples and the government. ​ Davin Report: A report written by Nicholas Flood Davin in 1879 that recommended the establishment of residential schools as a way of assimilating Indigenous children into European-Canadian culture. The 5 W's for Key Topics in Unit 8 1.​ Pre-Confederation Treaties ○​ Who: Indigenous peoples and the British Crown. ○​ What: Treaties made before Canadian Confederation in 1867, outlining agreements between Indigenous groups and settlers regarding land and rights. ○​ Where: Various parts of Canada, including Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritimes. ○​ When: 1700s–1867. ○​ Why: To allow settlers to expand into Indigenous territories, with promises of compensation or other agreements for the Indigenous peoples involved. 2.​ The Early British Land Treaties ○​ Who: Indigenous peoples and British settlers. ○​ What: Early land agreements in which Indigenous peoples ceded land to the British in exchange for certain promises or goods. ○​ Where: Eastern Canada and parts of the Maritimes. ○​ When: 1700s–early 1800s. ○​ Why: These treaties were designed to facilitate British settlement and expansion, often disregarding Indigenous land rights. 3.​ The Post-Confederation Land Treaties ○​ Who: Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government. ○​ What: Treaties negotiated after the creation of Canada in 1867, including the Numbered Treaties. ○​ Where: Western Canada and parts of Ontario. ○​ When: 1871–1921. ○​ Why: These treaties were negotiated to secure land for European settlers while providing compensation to Indigenous nations. 4.​ War of 1812 ○​ Who: British and Indigenous allies vs. Americans. ○​ What: A war fought between the United States and Britain, with Indigenous groups involved in the conflict as allies of the British.  ○​ Where: Primarily in the Great Lakes and along the US-Canada border. ○​ When: 1812–1815. ○​ Why: Indigenous nations sought to protect their land from American expansion, aligning with British interests in the conflict. 5.​ Métis Scrip ○​ Who: Métis people and the Canadian government. ○​ What: A government-issued land grant or voucher system used to compensate Métis people for their land rights after the Red River Rebellion. ○​ Where: Primarily in Manitoba. ○​ When: Late 19th century. ○​ Why: The Métis were promised land rights under the terms of the Manitoba Act but were instead offered scrip, which often led to land dispossession and economic hardship. Concepts Explained ​ Numbered Treaties Crown Obligations: The Crown (British and later Canadian government) had obligations to uphold the terms of the Numbered Treaties, including providing land, annuities, and services to Indigenous signatories. These obligations were often not fully met. ​ Numbered Treaties Status Indian Obligations: The Indigenous peoples who signed the Numbered Treaties were supposed to receive certain rights, including access to resources and protection of their land rights. These obligations were often ignored or violated by the Canadian government. ​ Corruption in Métis Scrip: The Métis scrip system was marred by corruption, with many Métis people receiving little value for their scrip, leading to the loss of land and resources. ​ Treaty Benefit for Newcomers: Newcomers to Canada, particularly settlers of European origin, benefited from the land granted by treaties with Indigenous peoples, often at the expense of Indigenous communities who were promised certain compensations that were never fully realized. Unit 9: Residential School Period, History & Reflections of First Nations, Métis & Inuit Key Terms Defined ​ Pass System: A policy that required Indigenous people to obtain permission from Indian Agents before leaving their reserves, which restricted their movement and autonomy. ​ Chief Shingwauk: An important Anishinaabe leader and advocate for Indigenous rights, particularly in relation to education.  ​ Recollets: Early French missionaries who played a significant role in the colonization of New France and in the establishment of religious schools for Indigenous children. ​ Thomas Moore: Likely refers to an individual in colonial or Indigenous history, particularly in relation to the residential school system. ​ Duncan Campbell Scott: A Canadian civil servant and poet who was influential in the creation and administration of the residential school system. He advocated for policies aimed at assimilating Indigenous children into European-Canadian culture. ​ "A National Crime": A term used by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) to describe the residential school system, which was seen as a deliberate attempt to erase Indigenous culture and identity. Unit 9: Residential School Period, History & Reflections of First Nations, Métis & Inuit (Continued) The 5 W's for Key Topics in Unit 9 1.​ Residential Schools ○​ Who: Indigenous children, the Canadian government, churches (Catholic, Anglican, and others), and residential school administrators. ○​ What: Institutions established to assimilate Indigenous children by removing them from their families and cultures, forcing them to adopt European-Canadian values and language. ○​ Where: Throughout Canada, including in remote and urban locations across the country. ○​ When: The system began in the 19th century, with the last school closing in 1996. ○​ Why: The Canadian government and churches sought to assimilate Indigenous peoples into mainstream Canadian society and erase Indigenous languages, traditions, and cultures. 2.​ Residential School Funding ○​ Who: The Canadian government and religious institutions. ○​ What: The funding was provided by the Canadian government to the religious institutions that operated residential schools, often underfunding these institutions despite the significant harm and neglect Indigenous children faced. ○​ Where: Throughout Canada, especially in provinces with large Indigenous populations such as Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia. ○​ When: Funding began in the 19th century and continued until the closing of the schools in the 1990s. ○​ Why: The government’s primary goal was to assimilate Indigenous children at minimal cost, while religious institutions were provided with financial support for their role in managing the schools. 3.​ Harper Apology ○​ Who: Prime Minister Stephen Harper, on behalf of the Canadian government.  ○​ What: An official apology issued in 2008 for the harm caused by residential schools to Indigenous peoples in Canada. ○​ Where: Ottawa, but the apology was directed at Indigenous communities across Canada. ○​ When: June 11, 2008. ○​ Why: The apology was an acknowledgment of the pain caused by residential schools and the role the Canadian government played in the forced assimilation of Indigenous children. Concepts Explained ​ Debate on Parental Visits and Access to Their Children: One of the most contentious issues around residential schools was the restricted access that parents had to their children. In many cases, children were taken far from their homes, and parents had little ability to visit them or maintain a connection. ​ Connections Between the Gradual Civilization Act, Indian Act, and Residential Schools: The Gradual Civilization Act (1857) and the Indian Act (1876) were both designed to assimilate Indigenous peoples into settler society. The residential school system was an extension of this policy, intended to destroy Indigenous cultures and languages and replace them with European norms. ​ Dinjii Zhuh Concept of Strength: A concept from the Diné (Navajo) worldview, emphasizing resilience and the inner strength that Indigenous peoples have maintained through adversity, such as the impact of residential schools and colonialism. ​ Métis and Inuit Attendance at Residential Schools: While the focus is often on First Nations children, Métis and Inuit children were also sent to residential schools. These groups, particularly the Inuit, faced unique challenges in these institutions and their assimilation efforts. ​ Assimilative Intent (Residential Schools & Sixties Scoop): The intent of residential schools and the Sixties Scoop (the removal of Indigenous children from their families into foster care or adoption) was to forcibly assimilate Indigenous children into Canadian society by erasing their Indigenous identity. Unit 10: Repression & Resistance Period: Resistance Grows & Organizes Key Terms Defined ​ Tommy Prince: A distinguished Métis soldier and war hero, known for his bravery during World War II. He became an advocate for Indigenous veterans' rights. ​ Indigenous Veterans Day: A day to recognize the contributions of Indigenous peoples who served in the military, both during World War I, World War II, and other conflicts.  ​ Charlotte Edith Monture: A member of the Mohawk community and a notable Indigenous woman who served in the military during World War II. ​ Mary Greyeyes: The first Indigenous woman to serve in the Canadian Armed Forces during World War II. ​ Forgotten Soldiers: Refers to Indigenous veterans who were often overlooked or neglected by the Canadian government despite their significant contributions during wars, especially World War I and II. ​ Bill C-51: A Canadian law passed in 1941 that made it illegal for Indigenous peoples to participate in activities perceived as subversive to the Canadian government, often used to suppress Indigenous rights. ​ Forgotten People: Refers to Indigenous peoples who have been marginalized or ignored in historical narratives, particularly in the context of their contributions to Canadian society. ​ Natural Resources Transfer Agreement: An agreement in which the Canadian government transferred the control of natural resources in the Prairie provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta) to the provincial governments. This had significant impacts on Indigenous land rights. ​ Lt. Frederick O. Loft: A First Nations soldier and activist, one of the founders of the League of Indian Nations, who advocated for the rights and recognition of Indigenous peoples in Canada. The 5 W's for Key Topics in Unit 10 1.​ WW1 Indigenous Involvement ○​ Who: Indigenous soldiers, primarily from First Nations communities across Canada. ○​ What: Indigenous peoples were recruited to fight in World War I, and their contributions were significant in battles across Europe. ○​ Where: Europe, particularly in France and Belgium, during the trenches of World War I. ○​ When: 1914–1918. ○​ Why: Indigenous peoples participated in World War I to defend their land and protect their way of life, despite not being fully recognized as Canadian citizens at the time. 2.​ WW2 Indigenous Involvement ○​ Who: Indigenous peoples, including First Nations, Métis, and Inuit. ○​ What: Indigenous peoples served in the military during World War II, with many participating in combat roles, while also contributing to the war effort at home. ○​ Where: Europe, the Pacific, and at home in Canada. ○​ When: 1939–1945. ○​ Why: Similar to World War I, Indigenous peoples volunteered to fight in World War II for a variety of reasons, including defending their communities and proving their loyalty to Canada.  3.​ Little Ice Age ○​ Who: Indigenous peoples in the Northern Hemisphere, especially those in colder climates like the Subarctic and Arctic. ○​ What: A period of cooler global temperatures that affected agricultural practices and the environment. ○​ Where: North America, particularly in northern regions. ○​ When: Approximately 1300–1850. ○​ Why: The Little Ice Age created environmental stress for Indigenous communities, impacting food sources, migration patterns, and overall survival. 4.​ Northwest Resistance ○​ Who: Métis and First Nations peoples, led by Louis Riel and others, resisting Canadian encroachment on their lands and rights. ○​ What: A rebellion in 1885 against the Canadian government’s treatment of Indigenous peoples and the Métis, particularly in Saskatchewan. ○​ Where: Saskatchewan, Canada. ○​ When: 1885. ○​ Why: The resistance was in response to the Canadian government's failure to honor agreements made in the Manitoba Act and the increasing pressure on Indigenous and Métis lands. Concepts Explained ​ Indian Agents and Enlistment: Indian Agents were government-appointed officials who controlled many aspects of Indigenous life on reserves, including overseeing enlistment during the World Wars. Indigenous people faced challenges enlisting due to restrictive policies and discrimination. ​ Issues with Soldier Settlement Act: The Soldier Settlement Act of 1919 aimed to provide land to returning soldiers, but it often overlooked Indigenous veterans, leading to a legacy of neglect and disenfranchisement. ​ Impact of the Amendment to Section 9 of the Citizenship Act: The amendment to Section 9 of the Canadian Citizenship Act in 1955 impacted Indigenous people’s status by denying full citizenship rights until Indigenous individuals abandoned their Indian status under the Indian Act.