IMPACT OF WAR AND REVOLUTION - Past Paper

IMPACT OF WAR AND REVOLUTION Crimean War 1853-6: - OVERVIEW: - Russia/Ottoman Turks (O.E supported by GB/Fr) - Siege of Sevastopol -- Russian troops surrendered. - Treaty of Paris (1856) -- Russia conceded territory in Bessarabia; prohibited from maintaining fleet in Black Sea. -...

IMPACT OF WAR AND REVOLUTION Crimean War 1853-6: - OVERVIEW: - Russia/Ottoman Turks (O.E supported by GB/Fr) - Siege of Sevastopol -- Russian troops surrendered. - Treaty of Paris (1856) -- Russia conceded territory in Bessarabia; prohibited from maintaining fleet in Black Sea. - Origins: - Russia wanted to remain Great Power. - 1827 -- Russia, GB, Fr supported agreement w/Turkey to allow Greeks to govern selves; sultan reluctant to stick -\> Battle of Navarino Bay. - N1 reached agreement under Akkerman Convention; allowed Russian merchant shipping easier access through Straits; sultan reneged -\> war. - Russian victories in Balkans/Caucasus; sultan had to honour Akkerman. - 1833 -- N1 decided to help Ottomans against Egyptian rebels; Turkey agreed to close Straits during conflict. - Straits Convention (1841) -- all foreign warships banned. - Disputes between Ru/Fr over Orthodox Christian/Catholic rights in Holy Lands. - 1851 -- Fr had moral obligation to be sole protector of Christians. - July 1853 -- N1 sent troops to Moldavia/Wallachia; Turkey declared war in October. - Impacts: - Realisation that Russia's economic/social infrastructure outdated esp serfdom. - Serfdom geared Russia towards agricultural economy w/tight control by aristocrats (preserving autocracy/Romanov dynasty). - Between 650,000-750,000 died (450,000 Russians). - Emancipation -- allowed for entrepreneurialism in agriculture eg selling surpluses at markets; movement of some rural labour to urban industry; modernisation of military/social reforms. - Modernisation of military -- peasants had less obligation to serve as conscripts; A2 changed how army recruited, changed, organised. - Forced changes in local gov -- nobility no longer had such huge role; A2 bridged gap between isolated emancipated peasants and rest of society w/zemstva; appeared to intro some democracy. - Didn't lead to any major change in ideology/structure of central gov. - Railway system -- nearly 2b roubles spent on constructing over 20,000km of track 1861-1878. Russo-Turkish War 1877-8: - Origins: - Increase in Slav nationalism in Ottoman Empire in 1870s; Austro-Hungarian Empire had significant Slavic population. - Russia interest around religious issues (need to protect Orthodox Christians in region). - 1870s saw rise in Russia nationalism/pan-Slavism. - 1875 -- Herzegovina/Bosnia rebelled against Ottomans; 1876 -- Bulgaria joined; Serbia/Montenegro declared war on Turkey. - Russia promised land, tax, religious reforms; unacceptable to West. - 1877 -- A2 declares war. - Impacts: - Treaty of San Stefano 1876 -- Russia regained lost regions of Bessarabia; Turkey paid war indemnity; Large Bulgaria created. - Congress of Berlin 1878 -- Russia retained rights to Bessarabia; A-H/GB gained territorial rights; Small Bulgaria created. - Revealed Russian industrial progress in engineering/steam power (navy destroying Turkish fleets). - Social unrest (from pan-Slavic supporters especially). - Ottoman Empire weakened -\> less competition. Russo-Japanese War 1904-5: - Origins: - Japan convinced by Great Powers to give back Port Arthur, which it had won against China; worried Japan would expand; Russia expanding influence by helping China. - Great Powers interested in China; Japan felt threatened. - Russia negotiated 25-year lease of Port Arthur from China; scope for controlling seas between China/Japan. - Chinese angry at West, which Russia started supporting; unrest in China -\> Boxer Rebellion; Russia won mini war but backed down from too severe treaty due to Japanese intervention; Russia agreed to withdraw forces from Manchuria by 1903. - Differing opinions in Russia on what to do; attempts at diplomacy by Japan rebuffed -\> alliance w/GB in 1902. - Russia broke promise of withdrawal; Japan launched attack on Port Arthur in Feb 1903. - Course of war: - Disastrous for Russia -- defeated at Battle of Yalu; Port Arthur surrendered; Russian naval fleet trounced in Tsushima Straits; Battle of Mukden = humiliating defeat. - Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) -- humiliation; made to withdraw from Manchuria/Port Arthur; had to acknowledge Japanese sovereignty over Korea. - Impacts: - Led to doubts about ability of tsar. - Revealed that Russian military leaders had lack of knowledge, understanding, skill; lost to inferior country. - N2 lifted restrictions on zemstva (imposed by A3) -- resulted in open criticism of tsar/demands for reform. - N2 published October Manifesto outlining plans for intro of national Duma; to appease increasing opposition to regime. - Revealed communication/transport weaknesses; Trans-Siberian railway still unfinished -\> further investment; developments led to rapid urbanisation/health problems. - 1905 Revolution WW1 1914-18: - Origins: - Failure to resolve Eastern Question (issues arising due to instability/collapse of Ottoman Empire). - Deterioration in relations with A-H. - Russian mobilisation order resulted from A-H's declaration of war on Serbia (Russia had obligation to support fellow Slavs). - Russian involvement ended Dec 1917 w/Treaty of B-L signed March 1918; Soviets forced to pay reparations/give up territory to Germans. - Impacts: - Military failures -- resulted in economic pressures (had impact on daily lives); levels of social unrest; morale of troops dented; lost twice as many troops as enemy; 8m casualties -\> 1.7m dead; industry struggling to keep up with demand of army. - Government -- abdication of N2 (took personal control of armed forces/left capital); formation of Prov Gov; Oct Rev -- impossible for Prov Gov to deal with issues properly whilst at war. - Economy -- inflation (prices rose by 400% by 1917); tax increases, foreign loans, War Bonds issued to deal with cost; total cost = 3bn roubles. - Society -- reduction in food supplies (largely regional -- Petrograd suffered w/bread ration falling by 25%); social unrest; rise of Petrograd soviet. 1917 Revolutions: - February: - Participation in WW1 caused deterioration in socioeconomic conditions; intensified criticisms of N2. - Matters came to head when series of strikes/protests led to workers being fired upon by troops; roughly ½ of Petrograd garrison decided to join; Petrograd soviet created to rule alongside Provisional Duma Committee. - N2 had to abdicate. - Official Prov Gov formed to deal with situation until CA could be declared. - October: - Summer 1917 -- members of Soviet (+ numbers of Bolsheviks) becoming frustrated with PG. - Economic issues/continuing participation in war. - October -- Bolsheviks had majority in Soviet/used advantage to seize power. - Short-term impacts: - Government -- overthrow of PG; Bolshevik seizure of power. - Economy -- link to Civil War resulted in economic dislocation. - Society -- link to Civil War resulted in disruption to social institutions; dictatorship of the proletariat. - Long-term impacts: - Government -- dictatorship of the proletariat; dictatorship; totalitarianism. - Economy -- centralised planning/control. - Society -- centralised planning/control of social institutions. Civil War 1917-1921: - Political/regional groups responded to Oct Rev by challenging Bolsheviks -- some saw it as opportunity to attack/destroy them; others keen to gain independence from central gov. - Resulting tensions led to outbreak. - Impacts: - Russian army defeated by Polish; foreign intervention during war on behalf of Whites/general mistrust of Bolsheviks by Western govs put L in defensive. - Strength of opposition forced L to adopt conciliatory policy/one built on developing peaceful relations; maintained concept of world revolution/Comintern. - 10m ppl died mainly from diseases. - Industry fell 10-20% of pre-war levels of capacity. - Industrial production fell; coal from 29m tonnes in 1913 to 8.9m in 1921. - Inflation out of hand; Oct 1920, rouble worth 1% of 1917 value; abandonment of currency. - Workers scattered; population of cities decimated to 50% of 1917 levels. - Provided base for centralised, authoritarian, one-party state. - Many of those who served in Red Army also served in post-war gov. - War Communism -- caused significant unrest; replaced with NEP. - Politburo/Orgburo became focus of gov -- centralisation of power quelled unrest. WW2 (1939-1945): - 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact -- temporary peace between Germany/Russia. - Russia hoped to use time to prepare for possible Japanese or German attack. - June 1941 -- Operation Barbarossa = Nazi invasion of USSR; start of Russian involvement. - Social effects: - Over 27m Russians killed. - Over 5m prisoners taken by Germany; number switched sides eg 50,000 Russians fought on German side at Battle of Stalingrad; 13,000 deserters shot. - Economic effects: - Damage to industrial/rural infrastructure; scorched earth policy. - Many industrial enterprises had to be relocated; many factories had to be reconverted back to original function. - Ideological effects: - USSR already centralised/authoritarian; didn't necessarily get more so. - Structure of gov: - Remained relatively stable. - Stalin became Supreme Commander of the Military/Chairman of the State Defence Committee -\> absolute control over military/arms supply. - Stalin still listened to key advisors/relied on judgement (all kept positions after war). - Repression: - NKVD active; during war -- purged party of minority groups; post-war -- want back to purging party/other dissidents. - Cult of Stalin strengthened as result of heroics. - Foreign policy: - Tehran/Yalta conferences confirmed territorial frontiers under Nazi-Soviet Pact. - Western powers permitted sphere of influence over much of EE; create buffer zone. - Issue of Germany -\> 4 zones. - 1948 Berlin Blockade/Wall worsened relations; problem of unification not resolved as result. The Cold War 1947-64: - Key events: - March 1947 -- Truman Doctrine - June -- Marshall Plan - Sept -- Cominform (coordinating EE's economic recovery) to counter Marshall Plan. - June 1948 -- Berlin Blockade began (all Soviet communication blocked with other sectors as retaliation to new plans for currency in Western zone). - April 1949 -- NATO; obviously designed to combat Soviet threat. - May 1949 -- Blockade ended. - May 1955 -- Warsaw Pact (peace/security treaty). - Oct 1956 -- Hungarian Uprising following secret speech; 4^th^ Nov -- USSR invaded Hungary to put down unrest. - Aug 1961 -- construction of Berlin Wall began. - May 1962 -- US U2 spy plane shot down over Russia -- K demanded apology from Eisenhower. - Impacts: - Ideology -- de-stalinisation presented more favourable view of Russia to West; announced greater transparency. - Domestic policies - Arms Race prompted high levels of investment in heavy industry -\> unrest eg Novocherkassk worker protests (dealt with ruthlessly). - Foreign policy -- several situation nearly caused war eg Cuban Missile Crisis; dealt with diplomatically -\> K willing to confront AND compromise w/West.