Crimean War (1853-1856)

Crimean War (1853-1856)

• Russia fought against the Ottoman Turks, who were supported by Great Britain and France
• The Siege of Sevastopol resulted in the surrender of Russian troops
• The 1856 Treaty of Paris saw Russia concede territory in Bessarabia and was prohibited from maintaining a fleet in the Black Sea
• Russia aimed to remain a Great Power
• In 1827, Russia, Great Britain, and France supported an agreement with Turkey allowing Greeks to govern themselves, but the Sultan resisted, leading to the Battle of Navarino Bay
• An initial agreement was reached under the Akkerman Convention, granting Russian merchant shipping easier access through the Straits, but the Sultan reneged, leading to war
• Russian victories occurred in the Balkans/Caucasus, and the Sultan had to honor the Akkerman agreement
• In 1833, Nicholas I helped the Ottomans against Egyptian rebels, and Turkey agreed to close the Straits during the conflict
• The Straits Convention of 1841 banned all foreign warships
• Disputes arose between Russia and France over Orthodox Christian/Catholic rights in the Holy Lands
• In 1851, France believed it had a moral obligation to be the sole protector of Christians
• In July 1853, Nicholas I sent troops to Moldavia/Wallachia, and Turkey declared war in October
• Russia's economic/social infrastructure was outdated, especially concerning serfdom
• Serfdom directed Russia towards an agricultural economy with tight control by aristocrats, preserving autocracy and the Romanov dynasty
• Between 650,000 and 750,000 people died, including 450,000 Russians
• Emancipation allowed for entrepreneurialism in agriculture, such as selling surpluses at markets, movement of some rural labor to urban industry, and modernization of military/social reforms
• Peasants had less obligation to serve as conscripts
• Alexander II changed and reorganized the army's recruitment and organization
• Changes in local government diminished the nobility's role
• Alexander II bridged the gap between isolated emancipated peasants and the rest of society with zemstva and appeared to introduce some democracy
• There was no major shift in ideology or structure of central government
• Nearly 2 billion roubles were spent on constructing over 20,000 km of railway track between 1861 and 1878

Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)

• Increased Slav nationalism in the Ottoman Empire during the 1870s
• The Austro-Hungarian Empire had a significant Slavic population
• Russia had religious interests to protect Orthodox Christians in the region
• The 1870s saw a rise in Russian nationalism and Pan-Slavism
• In 1875, Herzegovina and Bosnia rebelled against the Ottomans, and in 1876, Bulgaria joined
• Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey
• Russia promised land, tax, and religious reforms, which was unacceptable to the West
• Alexander II declared war in 1877
• Russia regained lost regions of Bessarabia, and Turkey paid a war indemnity according to the Treaty of San Stefano in 1876
• A large Bulgaria was created
• At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Russia retained rights to Bessarabia, Austria-Hungary/Great Britain gained territorial rights, and a small Bulgaria was created
• This war revealed Russian industrial progress in engineering/steam power due to the navy destroying Turkish fleets
• Social unrest arose, especially from Pan-Slavic supporters
• The Ottoman Empire weakened, leading to less competition

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

• Japan had been convinced by Great Powers to return Port Arthur, which it had won against China
• Russia was expanding influence by helping China
• Great Powers had interests in China and Japan felt threatened
• Russia negotiated a 25-year lease of Port Arthur from China, providing scope for controlling seas between China/Japan
• The Chinese were angry at the West
• Russia began supporting anti-West sentiment, leading to the Boxer Rebellion, where Russia won a mini war but backed down from too severe a treaty, leading to Japanese intervention
• Russia agreed to withdraw forces from Manchuria by 1903
• There were differing opinions in Russia on what to do
• Attempts at diplomacy by Japan were rebuffed, leading to an alliance with Great Britain in 1902
• Russia broke its promise of withdrawal, and Japan launched an attack on Port Arthur in February 1903
• The war was disastrous for Russia
• Russia was defeated at the Battle of Yalu, Port Arthur surrendered, and the Russian naval fleet was trounced in Tsushima Straits
• The Battle of Mukden resulted in a humiliating defeat
• According to the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), Russia was humiliated and forced to withdraw from Manchuria/Port Arthur, and had to acknowledge Japanese sovereignty over Korea
• This war led to doubts about the Tsar's ability
• It revealed that Russian military leaders lacked knowledge, understanding, and skill, and that the country was defeated by an inferior country
• Nicholas II lifted restrictions on zemstva (imposed by Alexander III), resulting in open criticism of the Tsar and demands for reform
• Nicholas II published the October Manifesto, outlining plans for the introduction of a national Duma to appease increasing opposition to the regime
• This war revealed communication and transportation weaknesses, as the Trans-Siberian railway was still unfinished, leading to further investment and developments that led to rapid urbanization and health problems
• The 1905 Revolution followed

World War I (1914-1918)

• Failure to resolve the Eastern Question, which included issues arising due to the instability/collapse of the Ottoman Empire was a cause
• Deterioration in relations with Austria-Hungary was a cause
• The Russian mobilization order resulted from Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia, as Russia had an obligation to support fellow Slavs
• Russian involvement ended in December 1917 with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed in March 1918
• The Soviets were forced to pay reparations and give up territory to the Germans
• Military failures resulted in economic pressures, impacting daily lives and leading to social unrest
• Troop morale was dented, and Russia lost twice as many troops as the enemy
• 8 million casualties included 1.7 million deaths, and industry struggled to keep up with the army's demand
• Nicholas II abdicated, taking personal control of the armed forces and leaving the capital
• A Provisional Government was formed, but the October Revolution made it impossible for the Provisional Government to deal with issues properly while at war
• The economy experienced inflation, with prices rising by 400% by 1917, and there were tax increases, foreign loans, and war bonds issued to deal with costs
• The total cost of the war was 3 billion roubles
• Society experienced a reduction in food supplies, largely regionally, and Petrograd suffered with bread rations falling by 25%
• Social unrest and the rise of the Petrograd Soviet occurred

1917 Revolutions

• Participation in World War I caused deterioration in socioeconomic conditions and intensified criticisms of Nicholas II - February
• Matters came to a head when a series of strikes/protests led to workers being fired upon by troops, and roughly half of the Petrograd garrison decided to join
• The Petrograd Soviet was created to rule alongside the Provisional Duma Committee
• Nicholas II had to abdicate
• An official Provisional Government was formed to deal with the situation until a Constituent Assembly could be declared
• In the summer of 1917, members of the Soviet and the number of Bolsheviks became frustrated with the Provisional Government - October
• the economic issues/continuing participation in war
• In October, Bolsheviks had a majority in the Soviet and used the advantage to seize power

Civil War (1917-1921) Short-Term Implications

• The government saw the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the Bolshevik seizure of power
• Economic dislocation was linked to the Civil War
• Disruption to social institutions and the dictatorship of the proletariat was linked to the Civil War
• Overthrow of PG
• Bolshevik

Civil War (1917-1921) Long-Term Implications

• Dictatorship
• Totalitarianism Government, centralization, control of economy and society
• Some political/regional groups challenged Bolsheviks and sought to break away, others saw this as an opportunity

Civil War (1917-1921) More Details

• The Russian army was defeated by Polish
• Intervention by foreign entities
• Mistrust of Bolsheviks by Western govs put L in defensive position
• Strength of opposition forced L to develop peaceful relations
• 10m died mainly from disease
• Industry fell 10-20%
• Industrial Production fell from 29m to 8.9m
• Industry Abandoned of currency
• Population of cities was cut in half
• War Communism caused unrest, was replaced with NEP
• Politburo/Orgburo quelled power

WWII (1939-1945)

• This war saw a Nazi-Soviet pact between Germany and Rissia -1939
• Russia wanted to prepare to fight Germanys
• June 1941- Operation Barbarossa= Start of Russian revolution
• Social impacts in Russia had Over 27 killed and had 5m Russian soldiers taken as prisoner of war, some switches sides
• Industrial and rural damage
• Industry that had to be relocate
• Many factories to be reconfigured
• Centralized gov which didn’t change due to authoritarian
• Stalin was in charge and became commander of state defense committee
• Stain listen to advisors
• NKVD active and killed minority groups
• Cult of Stalin came as a result
• Yala and tehran conferenced confirmed the territory in NAZI
• Influenced the EE
• Saw a Germany split in 4 zones

The Cold War (1947-1964) Key Events

• March 1947 - Truman Doctrine
• June - Marshall Plan
• Sept – Cominform coordinate to counter Marshall Plan,.
• June 1948 - Berlin Blockade began
• April 1949 – NATO; to combat Soviet threat.
• May 1949 – Blockade ended. May 1955 – Warsaw Pact treatys
• Oct 1956 – Hungarian
• Aug 1961 – Berlin Wall
• May 1962 – shot down of US Plane

The Cold War (1947-1964) Implications

• Ideology – USSR announced greater transparency and presented a more favorable point to West
• Promted high investments in heavy industry- domestic
• unrest- worker
• Foreign policy – several situation nearly caused war eq missile crise
• Russia willing to solve confrontations

The Crimean War pitted Russia against the Ottoman Turks, supported by Great Britain and France. The conflict concluded with the Treaty of Paris in 1856, where Russia conceded territory and faced restrictions in the Black Sea. Several factors led to the war, including naval battles and agreements concerning the Straits.