Russia and its Rulers Revision Guide - PDF

**THEMATIC -- RUSSIA AND ITS RULERS REVISION GUIDE** **(1855 -- 1964)** 1. **Nature of Russian Government** 2. **Impact of Russian regimes on Economy and Society** 3. **Impact of War and Revolution on the development of the Russian Empire** 4. **Empire, nationalities, and satellite stat...

**THEMATIC -- RUSSIA AND ITS RULERS REVISION GUIDE** **(1855 -- 1964)** 1. **Nature of Russian Government** 2. **Impact of Russian regimes on Economy and Society** 3. **Impact of War and Revolution on the development of the Russian Empire** 4. **Empire, nationalities, and satellite states** **\ ** **Administration** **Nature and Extent of Opposition:** ***Political Parties and Revolutionary Movements*** ***Success of Opposition: Evaluative Analysis and Thematic Synthesis** - **Underlying Themes:*** **Tools to Control Opposition:** **Secret Police:** * **Alexander II:** Initially used the 'Third Section of the Imperial Chancellery,' a form of secret police. In 1880, this was replaced by the Okhrana to counter growing political movements. The Okhrana's primary goal was to arrest or exile those undermining the government, and it became an essential tool for suppressing opposition during his reign.* * **Alexander III:** Utilized the Okhrana to spy on, arrest, and imprison political opponents. It was particularly used to counter revolutionary groups and to prevent challenges to the autocracy. The Okhrana was ruthless, with no legal restraints. It reached its peak during the period of radicalization, especially in 1905.* * **Nicolas II:** The Okhrana was tasked with infiltrating revolutionary groups like the SRs and SDs. This era marked a shift as the Okhrana targeted individuals for their association with political movements, such as Lenin's associates. The secret police also utilized agent provocateurs and acted as executioners.* * **Provisional Government:** In 1917, expanded the Okhrana, yet maintained a more lenient stance towards political dissidents.* * **Lenin:** The Cheka was established in December 1917, focusing on combating counter-revolutionaries. Under Lenin, terror became a means to accelerate the dictatorship of the proletariat. The Cheka used terror not just to punish actions, but to target specific classes and groups, such as Kulaks and political enemies.* * **Stalin:** Took control of the NKVD in 1934 and intensified the purge, particularly with the Yezhovshchina (1937-1938). The NKVD oversaw the mass terror that included deportations, executions, and running the gulags. Stalin's paranoia led to further purges within the NKVD itself, with over 20,000 members purged. The NKVD was crucial in implementing Stalin's personal dictatorship and conducting political trials.* * **Khrushchev:** As part of his destalinization process, reorganized the MVD into two departments: MVD and KGB. The new structure aimed at reducing repression, and political arrests and Gulag usage dropped significantly. However, political repression still remained a part of the system, though less severe compared to Stalin's era.* **Army:** * **1905-1917:** The Army was used to suppress strikes, protests, and riots, particularly in February 1917, when the army dealt forcefully with social unrest. Despite this, many soldiers deserted and joined the revolution.* * **Bolshevik Revolution (1917):** Lenin used the Army to secure Bolshevik power, and Trotsky's leadership turned the Red Army into a formidable force during the Civil War. However, problems of desertion and rebellion were significant, with the Kronstadt mutiny in 1921 exemplifying these challenges.* * **Stalin:** Used the Army to implement economic policies like grain requisitioning during Collectivization. It also played a role in the Great Purges and was involved in both internal security and enforcing Stalin's dictatorial control.* * **Great Purges (1936-1938):** Stalin removed over 40% of the military leadership during the purges, despite international tensions. This illogical action left Russia vulnerable, particularly as Hitler rose to power in Germany.* * **World War II:** During the war, soldiers fought heroically, but Stalin's treatment of military leaders was fraught with suspicion, with even war heroes like Zhukov being removed from positions of power.* * **Khrushchev:** After the war, Khrushchev shifted focus to international conflicts like the Cold War, reducing the size of the army from 3.6 million to 2.4 million. Tensions remained high, with flashpoints like the Cuban Missile Crisis, but international détente led to a less aggressive military stance.* *This summary captures the shifting role and methods used by the Russian state to control opposition, including the use of secret police and the military, from the late Tsarist period to Khrushchev's era.* **Censorship:** ***Alexander II**: Under Alexander II, Russia saw **Glasnost** for the first time, with relaxed censorship in 1865. Publications, books, and periodicals flourished, and government-run newspapers such as Ruskii spread official information. However, the government retained the power to withdraw any publications deemed "dangerous."* ***Alexander III**: Under Alexander III, there was a **clampdown on press freedom**. Pre-publication censorship was reinstated, and the government took strict control over publications, closing down journals, newspapers, and educational institutions.* ***Nicholas II**: Nicolas II saw a **reversion to the glasnost** policies of his father. Press freedom expanded in 1894, but it was still tightly controlled. Pre-publication censorship disappeared, though publishers could be fined for subversive material. Newspapers targeting the working class, like Kopek, emerged and grew in circulation.* ***PG**: The Provisional Government abolished press censorship and dismantled the **Okhrana** (the secret police), in the hopes of stabilizing Russia. However, these moves only allowed opposition groups to organize more effectively, exacerbating the political crisis.* ***Lenin:** After the **Bolshevik Revolution**, Lenin abolished press freedom to suppress opposition. The **Agitation and Propaganda Department** (Agitprop) was established in 1921 to control the media, arts, and education. Writers and artists who opposed the regime were labelled subversive, with the government exercising tight control over all forms of expression.* ***Stalin:** Under Stalin, **censorship** was heightened to an extreme. The **Union of Soviet Writers (USW)** controlled literature, forcing writers to adhere to the principles of **Socialist Realism**. Writers who deviated from the prescribed norms were arrested, exiled, or executed. Stalin also controlled all forms of media and heavily distorted information to maintain his grip on power.* ***Khrushchev:** Khrushchev relaxed some of Stalin's **censorship** policies, allowing greater artistic freedom and intellectual expression. Books, libraries, and newspapers proliferated, and there was a significant increase in the number of published works.* **Reform:** - *: Alexander II aimed to reduce opposition by implementing significant reforms, most notably the **Emancipation of the Serfs** in 1861, hoping to reduce discontent and prevent uprisings. These reforms were intended to alleviate pressure from growing revolutionary movements but, instead, generated further demands for change.* - *Alexander III rejected the reforms of his father, adopting a more **reactionary approach**. His rule saw increased repression, and instead of accommodating opposition, he sought to eliminate it through stricter measures.* - ***Nicholas**: In an attempt to quiet opposition, Nicolas II introduced the **Duma** in 1905, but it proved ineffective and became another tool to maintain autocratic control. His reforms were insufficient to address the underlying social unrest, leading to more opposition.* - ***The Provisional Government** introduced **liberal reforms** such as civil liberties and suffrage. However, their inability to maintain order or gain widespread support, particularly among workers and soldiers, ultimately led to their downfall. The government failed to control opposition and was overtaken by the Bolsheviks.* - ***Lenin** used **War Communism** to centralize control, often implementing reforms in a repressive manner to ensure compliance. **Political opponents** were purged, and dissent was crushed. Lenin's approach to reform was less about appeasing opposition and more about using policy to consolidate Bolshevik power.* - ***Stalin's** **collectivization** and **Five-Year Plans** were enforced through terror. Opposition to these policies was ruthlessly suppressed, and dissent was punishable by exile, labor camps, or execution. Stalin's reforms were designed to control the economy and society, using terror as a tool to enforce compliance.* **Propoganda:** - *While Alexander II didn't extensively use propaganda in the manner of later regimes, he began using state-controlled media and pamphlets to reinforce his messages.* - *Alexander III used **propaganda** to reinforce loyalty to the monarchy and the Orthodox faith, using portraits, staged events, and other visual materials to bolster his regime's divine right to rule.* - *Nicolas II began using **staged events** and **propaganda** to maintain the monarchy's legitimacy, although he did not rely on it as heavily as later regimes. His image was carefully curated, and he used visual materials to project power and continuity.* - *The Provisional Government struggled with **propaganda**. It tried to promote the idea of democracy and constitutionalism but was largely ineffective in controlling the narrative. The government lacked the infrastructure to use propaganda as effectively as the Bolsheviks.* - *Lenin was instrumental in creating his **cult of personality**, though much of it was developed posthumously. His image was used extensively after his death, particularly with the preservation of his embalmed body and the renaming of cities in his honor.* - *Stalin took Lenin's **cult of personality** to an unprecedented level. His image was omnipresent, and he was portrayed as a man of the people and the successor to Lenin. Stalin's use of **propaganda** included posters, statues, and media aimed at glorifying the **Five-Year Plans** and collectivization. Youth organizations like **Komsomol** promoted Stalin's ideals, and the media emphasized the heroic achievements of the working class.* - *While Khrushchev used **propaganda**, he did not push **Socialist Realism** as strictly as Stalin. He allowed greater creative freedoms after his **Secret Speech** in 1956, which criticized Stalin's terror. However, Khrushchev still used propaganda to promote Soviet achievements and his leadership.* 1. **Economy and Society** **Agriculture** ***Serfdom*** ***Emancipation of the Serfs*** **Industrialisation** ***Introduction:*** *Industrialisation in Russia between 1855 and 1964 was driven by a combination of ideological imperatives, geopolitical pressures, and economic pragmatism. While the Tsars sought to modernise Russia to maintain its status as a great power, the Communists aimed to transform the country into a socialist industrial powerhouse. Despite differing ideologies, both regimes shared a commitment to catching up with the West, though their methods and outcomes varied significantly.* ***Policy and Ideology*** *Comparison with the West* *- Catching Up: A key similarity across the period was the desire to keep up with Western industrial powers Stalin famously declared in 1931, "We must make good this distance in ten years. Either we do it or they crush us." This sentiment echoed the Tsars' earlier efforts to modernise Russia's economy and military.* *- Khrushchev's Shift: By the 1950s and 1960s, Khrushchev faced pressure to adapt to the consumer-driven economies of Western Europe and the USA. Unlike Stalin's focus on heavy industry and military discipline, Khrushchev sought to provide consumer goods and improve living standards to meet the expectations of a more socially mobile population.* *Prioritisation and Ideology* *- Tsarist Pragmatism: The Tsars' industrialisation policies were often driven by pragmatism rather than ideology. Alexander II and Nicholas II sought to reduce the threat of peasant uprisings by promoting industrial growth, while Alexander III allowed industrial stagnation in favour of agrarian policies.* *- Communist Focus: The Communists, particularly under **Stalin, prioritised heavy industry** as part of their ideological commitment to building a socialist state. Stalin's Five-Year Plans (1928--1941) represented a second revolution, transforming Russian society through rapid industrialisation and urbanisation.* *- Pragmatic Concessions: Both **Lenin** and **Khrushchev** demonstrated ideological flexibility. Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP) (1921--1928) reintroduced market elements to revive the economy, while Khrushchev relaxed factory discipline and increased wages to prevent discontent.* ***Methods of Industrialisation*** *State Intervention* *- Tsarist Era: Under Alexander II, industrialisation relied on private contractors and foreign investment. However, by the 1890s, **Sergei Witte** shifted towards **state-led industrialisation**, using **foreign loans and the gold standard** to finance rapid growth.* *- Communist Era: The Communists embraced a **command economy,** with the state controlling all major industries. Stalin's Five-Year Plans set **unrealistic targets,** leading to widespread falsification of production figures but also significant growth in heavy industry.* *Repression and Control* *-Tsarist Repression: The Tsars used the **Okhrana** to suppress political dissent, but their focus was on maintaining political stability rather than driving industrial policy.* *- Communist Repression: Under Lenin and Stalin, the **Cheka** and NKVD were used to enforce labour discipline and eliminate opposition. Stalin's reintroduction of Tsarist workbooks to monitor workers' performance exemplified the regime's control over the labour force.* *Propaganda* *- Tsarist Propaganda: The Tsars used propaganda to **legitimise their rule**, often glorifying the monarchy and its achievements.* *- Communist Propaganda: The Communists, particularly under Stalin, used propaganda to promote industrial success. **The Stakhanovite movement** celebrated workers who exceeded production targets, encouraging others to follow suit.* ***Foreign Investment and Autarky*** *Foreign Investment* *- Tsarist Era: Alexander II and Witte relied heavily on **foreign capital** and expertise. For example, the Welsh industrialist **John Hughes** transformed iron and steel production in Ekaterinoslav, making his company the largest producer of pig iron in the empire by 1884.* *- Communist Era: The Communists had limited access to foreign investment, particularly during the Civil War (1918--1921) when foreign loans went to the **White forces.** Stalin's policy of **autarky (self-sufficiency)** aimed to reduce dependence on foreign imports, focusing instead on heavy industry.* *Autarky* *- Stalin's Autarky: Stalin's emphasis on heavy industry and **military preparedness** was partly driven by the need to prove that communism could achieve self-sufficiency. This policy continued under Khrushchev, who sought to diversify the economy while maintaining centralised planning.* ***Impact of War on Industrialisation*** *Disruption* *- Crimean War (1853--1856) and Russo-Japanese War (1904--1905): Both wars resulted in defeat and a decline in industrial output, highlighting Russia's economic and military weaknesses.* *- World War I: **The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk** (1918) led to the loss of **1 million square miles** of territory, including key industrial regions, devastating Russia's industrial capacity.* *- Civil War (1918--1921): The Civil War further disrupted industrial production, with output falling to **31% of 1913 levels** by 1921.* *\#\#\#\# \*\*2. Acceleration\*\** *- \*\*Great Patriotic War (1941--1945):\*\* Despite immense human and material losses, the war spurred industrial growth. The relocation of \*\*1,503 industrial units\*\* to the east and the mobilisation of the entire population for war production demonstrated the effectiveness of Stalin's industrial policies.* *- \*\*Cold War (1947--1991):\*\* The \*\*space race\*\* and military competition with the USA drove further industrialisation under Khrushchev, culminating in achievements like the launch of \*\*Sputnik\*\* (1957) and \*\*Yuri Gagarin's\*\* spaceflight (1961).* ***Agricultural Policy and Industrialisation*** *1. Subservience to Industry\*\** *- \*\*Tsarist Neglect:\*\* Witte's focus on industrialisation at the expense of agriculture led to \*\*rural discontent\*\* and periodic famines, undermining industrial growth.* *- \*\*Communist Exploitation:\*\* The Communists, particularly under Stalin, used agriculture to fuel industrialisation. \*\*Collectivisation\*\* (1928--1933) forced peasants into collective farms, allowing the state to extract grain for industrial workers. However, this policy led to the \*\*Holodomor\*\* (1932--1933), a man-made famine that killed up to \*\*7 million people\*\*.* *2. Impact on Industrial Output\*\** *- \*\*Lenin's War Communism (1918--1921):\*\* Harsh grain requisitioning led to widespread famine and the \*\*scissors crisis\*\*, where industrial goods became prohibitively expensive for peasants, causing a return to \*\*subsistence farming\*\*.* *- \*\*Stalin's Five-Year Plans:\*\* Collectivisation ensured a steady supply of grain for industrial workers, but at a horrific human cost. By 1940, industrial output had increased significantly, with steel production rising by \*\*450%\*\* and coal by \*\*500%\*\*.* ***Natural Advantages and Infrastructure*** *\#\#\#\# \*\*1. Building on Previous Infrastructure\*\** *- \*\*Alexander II:\*\* Inherited a weak industrial base, with only \*\*2,000 miles of railway\*\* in 1851. His reforms, particularly under \*\*Reutern\*\*, laid the groundwork for future industrial growth.* *- \*\*Lenin and Stalin:\*\* Inherited a more developed infrastructure, with \*\*44,000 miles of railway\*\* by 1924. Stalin expanded this further, building new industrial cities like \*\*Magnitogorsk\*\* and modernising existing urban centres.* *\#\#\#\# \*\*2. Technological Advancements\*\** *- \*\*Stalin's Innovations:\*\* Stalin introduced new industries, including \*\*machine tool production\*\*, \*\*car and tractor factories\*\*, and \*\*large-scale aircraft production\*\*. The \*\*electrification\*\* of Russia under the \*\*GOELRO plan\*\* (1920) was a key factor in industrial growth.* *- \*\*Khrushchev's Space Race:\*\* Khrushchev's focus on \*\*science and technology\*\* led to significant advancements, including the development of \*\*nuclear power\*\* and \*\*space exploration\*\*.* ***Impact on People*** *\#\#\#\# \*\*1. Urbanisation\*\** *- \*\*Rapid Growth:\*\* Industrialisation led to massive urbanisation, with the urban population increasing from \*\*18% in 1926 to 33% in 1939\*\*. However, this growth was often unplanned, resulting in \*\*overcrowding\*\*, \*\*poor housing\*\*, and \*\*public health crises\*\*.* *\#\#\#\# \*\*2. Working Conditions\*\** *- \*\*Harsh Realities:\*\* Factory workers faced \*\*long hours\*\*, \*\*low wages\*\*, and \*\*dangerous conditions\*\*. Under Stalin, the \*\*uninterrupted week\*\* and \*\*labour discipline laws\*\* further exacerbated these issues.* *- \*\*Stakhanovites:\*\* The Stakhanovite movement, while celebrated, created unrealistic expectations for workers, leading to widespread \*\*exploitation\*\* and \*\*discontent\*\*.* *\#\#\#\# \*\*3. Famines and Repression\*\** *- \*\*Famines:\*\* Industrialisation often came at the expense of agriculture, leading to periodic famines. The \*\*Holodomor\*\* (1932--1933) and the \*\*1921 famine\*\* were direct consequences of state policies prioritising industry over food production.* *- \*\*Repression:\*\* Both Tsarist and Communist regimes used \*\*repression\*\* to maintain control. The \*\*Okhrana\*\*, \*\*Cheka\*\*, and \*\*NKVD\*\* were instrumental in suppressing dissent and enforcing labour discipline.* *Conclusion: Continuity and Change in Industrialisation* *Continuities* *- \*\*Centralised Control:\*\* Both Tsarist and Communist regimes relied on \*\*state intervention\*\* to drive industrialisation, though the Communists took this to unprecedented levels.* *- \*\*Repression:\*\* The use of \*\*secret police\*\* and \*\*labour discipline\*\* was a constant feature, ensuring compliance with state policies.* *- \*\*Focus on Heavy Industry:\*\* Both regimes prioritised \*\*heavy industry\*\* and \*\*military preparedness\*\*, often at the expense of consumer goods and agriculture.* *Changes* *- \*\*Scale and Speed:\*\* Stalin's industrialisation was far more \*\*rapid\*\* and \*\*disruptive\*\* than anything seen under the Tsars, transforming Russian society in a matter of years.* *- \*\*Ideological Justification:\*\* The Communists justified industrialisation through \*\*Marxist-Leninist ideology\*\*, while the Tsars relied on \*\*pragmatism\*\* and the need to maintain Russia's great power status.* *These notes provide a \*\*thematic overview\*\* of Russian industrialisation, allowing you to draw comparisons across the period and substantiate your arguments with \*\*detailed evidence\*\* and \*\*historiographical insights\*\*.* **Living and Working Conditions** ***Housing:*** ***Peasants*** - *90% of the population was peasants in 1856 and still over 40% by 1964.* - *For the majority of the period Peasant housing remained the same. It consisted of a single room wooden hut (izba) heated by an oven/sleeping platform.* - *Accommodation was overcrowded, especially given that animals were also kept inside with the extended family.* - *The huts were of poor quality and cold and damp, but at least the peasants had control over the space.* - *Under Stalin there was a change due to collectivisation, with the construction of 'special' housing blocks located on the periphery of collective farms* - *Khrushchev took this plan further and constructed self-contained 'agro-towns'. These tenements were built quickly and cheaply and was subsequently of a poor standard. They became very overcrowded and residents found themselves subject to the public health problems experienced in the towns and cities.* - *Displaced Kulaks suffered even worse conditions, as when they were forced from their properties they were usually dumped n barracks or given a tent in a field.* *Overall little was done by any Russian leader to improve rural housing.* ***Urban Workers*** - *At the end of the 19C 15% of the Russian Population lived in towns and cities, compared with 80% in Britain and 40% in USA. Only 19 cities had more than 100,000 inhabitants (Moscow -- 1 mill, st P -- 1.25)* - *There was rapid urbanisation in the first decade of the 20C and by 1914 the populations of the two main cities almost doubles. By 1914 1000 towns contained 2 million buildings.* - *The result of this was an increase in public health problems, as housing was generally erected quickly and cheaply and therefore had inadequate drainage, water supplies and sanitation. Demand for reasonable accommodation at affordable rents always outstripped supply. His led to overcrowding and the inevitable spread of diseases such as cholera.* - *As most houses were made of wood, tows were prone to fires, especially as they were lit with paraffin lamps (only 74 towns had access to electricity).* - *Around 200 towns had piped water and 38 has a sewage system, but even here where facilities were available disease still multiplied. Cholera was rife in St Petersburg (100,000 deaths in 1910)* - *Conditions improved in St Petersburg in 1911 with the installation of a sewage system, showing that politicians were willing to act when situations became really desperate. Indeed, cholera outbreaks always provoked a positive reaction to reform as the disease affected all classes in society.* - *As factories were normally located on the edge of towns a transport was slow to develop, it became necessary to provide special worker housing. 'Barracks' were hastily built and were invariably overcrowded and insanitary.* - *Shift systems meant workers and their families would share bunk neds, or in small-scale enterprises, workers usually slept in the workshop.* - *On the whole factory workers experienced some of the worst living conditions found in Russia.* - *Rogger suggests that another effect was that 'the brutishness of the working man's life tended to make him difficult and explosive'.* - *In 1917 the Bolsheviks issued the Decree on Peace, which partly focused on what the party intended to do about property. Houses were to be taken from private owners and handed over to the proletariat. /to ensure fairness that redistribution was placed in the hand of the soviets. This led to some improvement, though the result was short lived.* - *During Stalin's rule housing conditions deteriorated. Overcrowding once more became the norm with his focus on industrialisation under the 5 year plans.* - *In Moscow in the mid-1930s 25% of the population was living in one room that was shared between two or more households. A further 25% lived in communal dormitories., and 5% lived in a bathroom, kitchen, corridor or hallway.* - *The Stalinist policy was to allocate space rather than rooms to individuals and families. Even when some were lucky to get their own room in one of the new communist high-rise tenements, bathrooms and kitchens would be shared.* - *The Communists responded to any criticism of the low priority housing took in this socialist society, by claiming sacrifice had to be made in the short term to enable the Russian economy to expand i.e. social projects had to be put on hold to focus on the 5 year plans.* - *WW" resulted in swathes of Russia becoming depopulated and over 25 million Russians being made homeless. Stalin made some attempts to address the problem but Khrushchev launched a housing programme of huge proportions.* - *Between 1955-1964 he housing stick doubles and the principle behind communal living were abandoned. This pleased the population.* - *A worrying development was that some benefited more than others through the emergence of housing cooperatives. These benefited the professionals who could afford to pay deposits on new cooperative housing and make loan repayments at reasonable rates of interest.* - *By the end of the period housing was so much better that more people wanted to stay at home than attend political meetings!* ***Work:*** *Peasants* - *Work on the land was directed by nature and specific tasks had to be done at certain times of the year. The success of farmers was determined more by the quality of soul, the weather and their innate ability to farm rather than by government policies.* - *Emancipation, the appointment of land captains, grain requisitioning, collectivisation and the Virgin Land campaign all influenced conditions under which the peasants worked.* - *Before the Bolsheviks the peasants were at least able to control the pace at which they worked and how much they produced. The only restrictions outside those provided by nature were those imposed by the Mir. The main aim for peasant under the Tsars was to produce as much as possible so they could feed their families, pay off debts and save for bad years. They worked all day every day with holy days off.* *Under the Communists the nature of rural work changed. Amount and method of production was determined by central government. Investment in new technology boosted productivity, and the tractor was a huge breakthrough. Overall under the communists peasant were far more regulated and individuals who did not follow were punished.* ***Urban Workers*** *The worst industrial conditions were in factories, and there were no factory inspectorate until 1882 meaning conditions were dangerous and unhealthy.* - *When inspectors were introduced they were ineffective and were too few in number and had limited powers of enforcement. I.e. under 12 were banned from factory work in 1882 but most employers continued knowing they would never get caught.* - *End of the 19C laws were introduced that governed the length of the working day -- though this fluctuated over the period depending on situation (war) and policy.* - *1903 the worker insurance system was introduced, that offset low pay. Wages were often very poor.* - *February 1920 saw Rabkrin (workers' and peasants' Inspectorate) introduced. This was a backward step as they purely discussed things and did not enforce industrial law.* - *It was more repressive under Stalin. Fines were used as punishment for petty crimes and workers were often threatened with being 'purged'. Officials would claim that certain workers were intent on disrupting production by 'wrecking' machinery or slowing down work to prevent the implementation of the 5 year plans. Women and children were often treated more harshly than men.* *Stakhanovite movement popularise bonus schemes and some workers managed to financially benefit from them. In reality real wages fell by 50% over the first five year plan.* ***Food*** - *The staple food was grain (rye and buckwheat) and vegetables, with some meat or fish. This was supplemented with fruit, mushrooms, berries and washed down with tea or vodka.* - *The whole period was characterised by intermittent food shortages and famines because of: a tendency towards monoculture (overreliance of grain), restrictive practices of the Mir, severe weather conditions, government polices (requisitioning ad collectivisation)* - *Even before 1955 food shortages had consistently caused governments concern. When Alexander II came to the throne he was worried that if shortages continued to occur there would be widespread social unrest. To this end in 1864 he placed the Zemstvo in charge of drawing up emergency measures to deal with famines.* *Famine of 1891:* - *Adverse weather resulted in half the province of Russia suffering from food shortages that were unprecedented.* - *Provincial governments appeared to cope well but the famine and the resulting cholera outbreaks led to 350,000 deaths.* - *Some blamed central government and Vyshnergradsky's (finance minister) tax on consumer goods, that led to peasants selling more of their grain surplus.* - *Alexander III tried to counter criticism by banning exports of grain and setting up the Committee on Famine Relief but it was too little too late.* - *This gave added impetus to joining the revolutionary groups emerging at the time.* *World War One* - *During the first three years there were good harvest, although those in towns did not usually reap the benefits as grain was used for troops and it was difficult to transport grain to urban areas.* - *Brad queues of 8hours long became the norm (leading to the view that 'revolution started in the bread queue')* - *Peasants sometimes horded grain or used it to feed their animals.* - *Russians hoped that with the fall of the Tsar there would be greater access to food, but their hopes were dashed.* *Food Crisis 1918* - *Peasants continued to hoard and valuable agricultural land had been lost as a result of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.* - *The Bolsheviks responded by introducing grain requisitioning i.e. redistributing it from peasants to those with a greater need. In the Communist's eye, the urban worker.* - *Kulaks were blamed for the shortage and subsequently persecuted.* - *Peasants revolted and led violent protests against the harsh measures* - *By 1920 he Cheka had been instructed to seize all food supplied for redistribution. This led to chaos in the countryside.* *Famine 1921* - *The Bolsheviks food policy's combined with droughts after the severe Winter of 1920/21 led to a major famine. Ukrainian food production fell by 20% during this time. The railway shut down after the civil k war meant it was extremely difficult to transport produce or for urban dwellers to travel to food sources. This led to a death toll of over 5 million.* - *Crisis was characterised by rumours of bodysnatching and cannibalism.* - *Lenin was partly to blame as he was reluctant to take aid from Hoover's America Relief Administration.* *Mid 1920s* - *Though stability was mainly restored by 1928 there were shortages again. These were due to the policies against Kulaks, who were blamed for hoarding grain and subject to requisitioning.* - *They also introduced a scheme where villages were encouraged to reveal grain hoarders and those who showed bourgeois tendencies in exchange for rewards. This led to a mas of denunciations.* *Famine of 1932-1934* - *Combination of collectivisation ad poor harvests due to wealth led to the most disastrous famine of the whole period. The number of deaths from starvation was similar to that of 1921 but many more suffered as a result of Stalinist repression.* - *Death penalty was imposed for stealing grain (even if it legally belonged to the accused); Peasants who ate their own seed corn were shot along with those sent to guard it; Discussion of the grain crisis was banned (Stalin public denied a food problem existed); Severe restrictions were placed on those want to move around to look for food; Animals were slaughtered by some peasants in preface to handing them over to the authorities and horse shortages ensued which slowed down ploughing.* - *By 1035 matters started to slowly improved but on the eve of WW2 it was unlikely that total food output had reached pre WW1 levels. Generally, the diet of urban workers under the communists seemed worst, for exhale the consumption of meat and fish had fallen by 80%* *World War Two* - *During WW2 the policy towards collectivisation was relaxed and this led to a rise in production.* - *This was short-lived as another famine took place in 1947.* - *The pattern of poor harvests and associated food shortages continued during the rule of Khrushchev. Despite virgin land campaign and improvements to the state pricing mechanism for agricultural produce, food still had to be imported.* - *Critics at the time believed that adherence to a policy of subsidised 'socialised agriculture' simply led to inefficiency and a situation whereby the demand for food in Russia always outstripped the ability of Russian farmers to meet it.* ***Social Change*** *1**. Structure and Growth of Society*** *- \*\*Population Growth\*\*:* *- \*\*Reasons for Growth\*\*:* *- Natural rate of growth, indirectly influenced by political, economic, and social policies.* *- Industrialisation (e.g., Witte's Great Spurt, Five-Year Plans) spurred urbanisation and increased birth rates.* *- Emancipation Edict (1861) allowed peasants to marry freely, though civil marriage was only introduced post-1917.* *- Abortion legalised in 1926 led to a fall in birth rates, prompting restrictions. However, abortion was fully legalised again in 1955, causing further fluctuations in birth rates.* *- \*\*Extent of Change\*\*:* *- Population grew significantly during 1870-1914 and the inter-war period.* *- Urbanisation increased as peasants moved to cities like Moscow and St Petersburg for work, leading to overcrowding and poor living conditions.* *- Government policies on family planning were inconsistent, except during crises (e.g., WW2).* ***- Changes in Social Structure:*** *- \*\*1855-1917\*\*:* *- Hierarchical structure: Aristocracy (2% of population), middle class (2 million by 1914), and peasants (80% by WW1).* *- Middle class grew, threatening the aristocracy's monopoly on power. This group was divided between commercial and professional classes but represented a significant social shift.* *- Industrialisation blurred lines between peasants and industrial workers, creating an "aristocracy of labour" (skilled workers offering services as teams).* *- Nobility declined due to extravagant spending and the rise of the middle class.* *- \*\*Post-1917\*\*:* *- In theory, communism abolished class distinctions, creating a classless society.* *- In reality, a hierarchical bureaucracy emerged, led by a small elite (e.g., Communist Party officials).* *- Workers were stratified, with technical experts receiving privileges.* *- Continuity with Tsarist social organisation: a small elite governed the masses.* ***Education*** *- \*\*Primary Schools\*\*:* *- \*\*Tsars\*\*:* *- Alexander II's reforms (1860s) aimed to improve literacy, especially among peasants. Zemstva administered schools, but central government retained control over teachers and curriculum.* *- By 1880, 8,000 new primary schools were established, doubling student numbers to 800,000.* *- Nicholas II aimed for universal primary education by 1922, but WW1 and revolutions disrupted this.* *- \*\*Communists\*\*:* *- Focused on literacy to create a capable workforce. In 1930, primary school attendance became compulsory, increasing pupils from 8 million (1929) to 18 million (1930).* *- Lunacharsky, Commissar for Education, had absolute control over schools, including Church schools.* *- \*\*Secondary Schools\*\*:* *- \*\*Tsars\*\*:* *- Debate over traditional gymnasia (grammar schools) vs. modern schools teaching vocational subjects.* *- Alexander II introduced modern gymnasia, but Alexander III banned lower-class children from attending.* *- \*\*Communists\*\*:* *- Replaced gymnasia with polytechnics, emphasising vocational skills. By 1932, secondary school pupils increased from 2.5 million to 6.9 million.* *- Khrushchev reintroduced polytechnic-based schools and abolished fees, aiming to break from Stalinist policies.* *- \*\*Universities\*\*:* *- \*\*Tsars\*\*:* *- Alexander II granted universities autonomy, but Alexander III reversed this, increasing censorship and inspections.* *- \*\*Communists\*\*:* *- Universities were used to promote communist ideology and train a skilled workforce.* ***3. Health and Housing*** *- \*\*Workers\*\*:* *- Rapid urbanisation led to poor housing and public health issues (e.g., cholera, overcrowding).* *- Factory workers lived in overcrowded, unsanitary barracks, often sharing bunk beds or workshops.* *- Sewage systems improved conditions in St Petersburg by 1911, reducing cholera deaths.* *- \*\*Peasants\*\*:* *- 90% of the population lived in single-room wooden huts, often shared with animals.* *- Little improvement in rural housing until Khrushchev's housing programme (1955-64), which doubled housing stock.* *\*\*Communist Era\*\*:* *- Housing deteriorated under Stalin, with 25% of Moscow's population living in shared rooms.* *- Khrushchev's housing programme improved conditions, but rural housing remained poor. "Agro-towns" were planned but poorly constructed.* *\--Political Freedom* *- \*\*Provisional Government\*\*:* *- Adopted liberal principles but failed to maintain control, leading to the rise of the Bolsheviks.* *- Political prisoners were released, allowing opposition groups to gather momentum.* *- \*\*Communist Era\*\*:* *- Constitutions of 1924 and 1936 extended influence over republics but maintained central control.* *- Marxism-Leninism and Stalinism moved towards totalitarianism.* *- Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation introduced democratic centralism, but personal freedoms remained limited.* ***5. Religious Freedom\*\**** *- \*\*Tsars\*\*:* *- Orthodox Church was a tool for social control, with clergy supporting autocracy.* *- \*\*Communists\*\*:* *- Viewed religion as "the opium of the people" and suppressed religious practices.* *- 1917 decree separated Church from State and School from Church.* *- Anti-religious campaigns targeted minority religions, especially during WW2.* *- Religion was never banned but heavily restricted, with believers scrutinised by authorities.* *-**6. Personal Freedom*** *- \*\*Tsars and Communists\*\*:* *- Both regimes controlled personal freedoms through legal systems, police, propaganda, and censorship.* *- Liberal periods were short-lived and often followed by repressive measures.* *Key Themes and Comparisons:* *- \*\*Continuity\*\*:* *- Both Tsarist and Communist regimes sought to increase the workforce through population growth.* *- Majority of the population remained peasants, with a small governing elite.* *- Education and housing reforms were often driven by economic and political needs rather than social welfare.* *- \*\*Change\*\*:* *- Post-1917, the theoretical abolition of class distinctions under communism contrasted with the hierarchical reality.* *- Communist policies on education, housing, and religion were more radical and ideologically driven than those of the Tsars.* *Evaluation:* *- \*\*Social Change\*\*:* *- Industrialisation and urbanisation were key drivers of social change, but they also exacerbated inequalities and living conditions.* *- The rise of the middle class under the Tsars and the bureaucratic elite under the Communists highlight the persistence of social hierarchies.* *- \*\*Education\*\*:* *- Both regimes used education as a tool for social control, but the Communists were more successful in increasing literacy and creating a skilled workforce.* *- \*\*Health and Housing\*\*:* *- Urbanisation created public health crises, but improvements were often reactive (e.g., sewage systems in St Petersburg).* *- Housing reforms under Khrushchev marked a significant improvement, but rural areas remained neglected.* *- \*\*Political and Religious Freedom\*\*:* *- Both regimes suppressed dissent, but the Communists were more systematic in their control, using ideology to justify repression.* *- Religious freedom was consistently restricted, with the Communists taking a more aggressive stance against religion.* **War** **Mini War fact files** ***1. Crimean War (1853-56)*** *- \*\*Origins\*\*:* *- \*\*Long-term\*\*: Great Power rivalry over the Eastern Question (decline of the Ottoman Empire). Russia sought to expand influence in the Balkans and secure access to the Black Sea.* *- \*\*Short-term\*\*: Dispute between Russia and France over Orthodox and Catholic rights in the Holy Lands. Russia's destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope (1853) provoked British and French intervention.* *- \*\*Course\*\*:* *- Key battles: Alma (1854), Balaclava (1854), Inkerman (1854), and the Siege of Sevastopol (1854-55).* *- Nicholas I's death (1855) led to Alexander II's ascension and eventual peace negotiations.* *- \*\*Treaty of Paris (1856)\*\*: Russia lost Bessarabia, demilitarised the Black Sea, and handed protection of Christians in the Ottoman Empire to other powers.* *- \*\*Impact\*\*:* *- \*\*Military Reforms\*\*: Dmitrii Milyutin's reforms (1862-74) modernised the army, reducing service to 15 years and improving training.* *- \*\*Emancipation of the Serfs (1861)\*\*: Highlighted Russia's backwardness, leading to abolition of serfdom.* *- \*\*Local Government Reforms\*\*: Creation of Zemstva (elected local councils) introduced limited democracy.* *- \*\*Railway Expansion\*\*: 20,000 km of track built (1861-78) to improve mobilisation and economic development.* *- \*\*Analysis\*\*:* *- The war acted as a catalyst for reforms, but many changes (e.g., emancipation) were already under consideration.* *- Russia's humiliation exposed its technological and logistical weaknesses, accelerating modernisation efforts.* *- \*\*Turning Point\*\*: Marked the beginning of Russia's transition from a feudal to a more modern state.* ***2. Russo-Turkish War (1877-78)*** *- \*\*Origins\*\*:* *- \*\*Long-term\*\*: Pan-Slavism and Russian desire to protect Orthodox Christians in the Balkans.* *- \*\*Short-term\*\*: Revolts in Herzegovina, Bosnia, and Bulgaria (1875-76) prompted Russian intervention.* *- \*\*Course\*\*:* *- Russian victories at Plevna and Shipka Pass led to the \*\*Treaty of San Stefano (1878)\*\*: Russia regained Bessarabia, gained territory in the Caucasus, and established a "large" Bulgaria.* *- \*\*Congress of Berlin (1878)\*\*: Reduced Bulgaria's size, granted Austria-Hungary control of Bosnia-Herzegovina, and gave Britain Cyprus.* *- \*\*Impact\*\*:* *- \*\*Territorial Gains\*\*: Russia regained Bessarabia and expanded in the Caucasus.* *- \*\*Nationalist Discontent\*\*: Pan-Slavists were angered by concessions to Austria-Hungary and Britain, leading to social unrest.* *- \*\*Assassination of Alexander II (1881)\*\*: Linked to nationalist dissatisfaction with the war's outcome.* *- \*\*Analysis\*\*:* *- The war strengthened Russia's position in the Balkans but exposed its diplomatic isolation.* *- \*\*Limited Impact\*\*: Unlike the Crimean War, it did not lead to significant domestic reforms.* ***3. Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)*** *- \*\*Origins\*\*:* *- \*\*Long-term\*\*: Russian expansion in the Far East (e.g., Trans-Siberian Railway, Port Arthur) clashed with Japanese interests in Korea and Manchuria.* *- \*\*Short-term\*\*: Failed negotiations over Manchuria and Korea led to Japan's surprise attack on Port Arthur (1904).* *- \*\*Course\*\*:* *- Key battles: Port Arthur (1904-05), Mukden (1905), and Tsushima Strait (1905).* *- \*\*Treaty of Portsmouth (1905)\*\*: Russia lost Port Arthur, South Sakhalin, and acknowledged Japanese dominance in Korea.* *- \*\*Impact\*\*:* *- \*\*Military Reforms\*\*: Exposed weaknesses in leadership and logistics, prompting further reforms.* *- \*\*Social Unrest\*\*: Defeat sparked the \*\*1905 Revolution\*\*, leading to the \*\*October Manifesto\*\* and creation of the Duma.* *- \*\*Economic Modernisation\*\*: Increased investment in railways and industry.* *- \*\*Analysis\*\*:* *- The war accelerated demands for political reform and highlighted the inefficiency of autocracy.* *- \*\*Turning Point\*\*: Marked the beginning of the end for Tsarist rule, as it exposed the regime's inability to adapt to modern challenges.* ***4. World War I (1914-17)*** *- \*\*Origins\*\*:* *- \*\*Long-term\*\*: Alliance system (Triple Entente vs. Central Powers) and Russian support for Serbia.* *- \*\*Short-term\*\*: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914) led to Austrian ultimatum to Serbia and Russian mobilisation.* *- \*\*Course\*\*:* *- Key battles: Tannenberg (1914), Masurian Lakes (1914), and Brusilov Offensive (1916).* *- Nicholas II's poor leadership and economic mismanagement led to widespread discontent.* *- \*\*Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)\*\*: Ended Russia's involvement but ceded significant territory to Germany.* *- \*\*Impact\*\*:* *- \*\*Economic Collapse\*\*: Inflation, food shortages, and industrial dislocation.* *- \*\*Social Unrest\*\*: Strikes, protests, and the \*\*February Revolution (1917)\*\* led to the abdication of Nicholas II.* *- \*\*Political Change\*\*: Provisional Government replaced by Bolsheviks in the \*\*October Revolution (1917)\*\*.* *- \*\*Analysis\*\*:* *- The war exposed the weaknesses of Tsarist rule and accelerated the collapse of autocracy.* *- \*\*Turning Point\*\*: Led to the establishment of a communist regime, fundamentally altering Russia's political and social structure.* ***Russian Civil War (1917-22)*** *- \*\*Origins\*\*:* *- \*\*Long-term\*\*: Social and political divisions exacerbated by WWI and the October Revolution.* *- \*\*Short-term\*\*: Bolshevik seizure of power and opposition from Whites, Greens, and foreign interventionists.* *- \*\*Course\*\*:* *- Key events: Defeat of Kolchak (1920), Polish-Soviet War (1920-21), and suppression of Green armies.* *- Red Army, led by Trotsky, secured victory through discipline and centralised command.* *- \*\*Impact\*\*:* *- \*\*War Communism\*\*: Centralised control of the economy, leading to famine and social unrest.* *- \*\*New Economic Policy (NEP)\*\*: Introduced to stabilise the economy but contradicted communist principles.* *- \*\*Centralisation of Power\*\*: Politburo and Orgburo became the main organs of government.* *- \*\*Analysis\*\*:* *- The war solidified Bolshevik control but revealed the limitations of communist ideology.* *- \*\*Turning Point\*\*: Established a totalitarian regime under Lenin, setting the stage for Stalin's rule.* ***. World War II (1941-45)\*\**** *- \*\*Origins\*\*:* *- \*\*Long-term\*\*: Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) and mutual distrust between Stalin and Hitler.* *- \*\*Short-term\*\*: Operation Barbarossa (1941) -- Germany's invasion of the USSR.* *- \*\*Course\*\*:* *- Key battles: Siege of Leningrad (1941-44), Stalingrad (1942-43), and Kursk (1943).* *- Soviet counter-offensives pushed Germany back, culminating in the capture of Berlin (1945).* *- \*\*Impact\*\*:* *- \*\*Human Cost\*\*: 27 million Soviet deaths, including 5 million POWs.* *- \*\*Economic Devastation\*\*: Industrial and agricultural destruction, leading to the \*\*1947 famine\*\*.* *- \*\*Political Continuity\*\*: Stalin maintained totalitarian control, with increased patriotism and party membership.* *- \*\*Territorial Gains\*\*: USSR expanded into Eastern Europe, establishing a "sphere of influence."* *- \*\*Analysis\*\*:* *- The war reinforced Stalin's regime and expanded Soviet influence, but at a tremendous human and economic cost.* *- \*\*Turning Point\*\*: Marked the beginning of the Cold War, as the USSR emerged as a global superpower.* ***Cold War (1947-91)\*\**** *- \*\*Origins\*\*:* *- \*\*Long-term\*\*: Ideological conflict between capitalism (USA) and communism (USSR).* *- \*\*Short-term\*\*: Post-WWII power vacuum in Europe and mutual distrust between superpowers.* *- \*\*Course\*\*:* *- Key events: Berlin Blockade (1948-49), Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), and Soviet interventions in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968).* *- Arms race and space race intensified tensions.* *- \*\*Impact\*\*:* *- \*\*Economic Strain\*\*: High military spending diverted resources from consumer industries.* *- \*\*Political Repression\*\*: Justified by the perceived threat from the West.* *- \*\*Technological Advancements\*\*: Achievements in space (e.g., Sputnik) showcased Soviet capabilities.* *- \*\*Analysis\*\*:* *- The Cold War reinforced the USSR's totalitarian structure and limited domestic reforms.* *- \*\*Turning Point\*\*: The collapse of the USSR (1991) marked the end of the Cold War and the failure of the communist system.* *1. HOW MUCH CHANGE DID WAR BRING?* *(Assessing Political, Social, and Economic Change)* *Introduction* * Wars in Russia acted as catalysts for change, but the extent varied---some led to fundamental transformation (1917, WWII), while others reinforced existing structures (Russo-Turkish, Cold War).* * The degree of change depended on factors like war outcome, regime stability, and economic conditions.* * Greatest change = WWI (1917 Revolution) and WWII (superpower status).* * Least change = Russo-Turkish War (1877--78) and Cold War (stagnation).* *Political Change* *Wars that Caused Radical Political Shifts* * WWI (1914--18) -- The most transformative war* * February 1917: Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, ending 300 years of Romanov rule → led to Provisional Government.* * October 1917: Bolsheviks seized power, replacing Tsarism with Marxist-Leninist dictatorship.* * Civil War (1918--21): Bolshevik victory cemented a one-party state, centralised economy, and terror-based governance (Cheka, Red Terror).* * WWII (1941--45) -- Reinforced Stalin's dictatorship but reshaped global power* * Strengthened Stalin's totalitarian grip -- war justified mass repression, e.g., deportation of ethnic minorities (Crimean Tatars, Volga Germans).* * USSR emerged as a superpower, leading to Cold War (1945--91) and a global shift towards bipolar power structures.* *Wars that Brought Minimal Political Change* * Crimean War (1853--56) -- Reform but no systemic shift* * Highlighted military weakness, forcing Alexander II's reforms (e.g., 1861 Emancipation of the Serfs, 1864 Zemstva).* * However, autocracy remained intact---Alexander II's assassination (1881) led to reactionary policies under Alexander III.* * Russo-Turkish War (1877--78) -- No major political change* * Fought under Alexander II, but no major domestic reforms resulted.* * Treaty of San Stefano (1878) increased Russian Balkan influence but was largely undone by Congress of Berlin.* *Evaluation:* * WWI (1917) was the greatest political turning point (end of Tsarism, rise of Bolshevism).* * WWII (1941--45) solidified Soviet power but did not introduce a new system.* * Crimea (1856) forced reform but kept autocracy intact, unlike WWI.* *Social Change* *Wars that Had Huge Social Transformations* * WWI and Civil War -- Revolution and mass suffering* * 1917 Provisional Government introduced liberal reforms (freedom of speech, universal suffrage), but these were short-lived.* * Bolsheviks destroyed the old class system, expropriated landowners, and created a workers' state (at least in theory).* * Mass casualties -- 1.7 million Russian soldiers died in WWI, 8 million in the Civil War.* * WWII -- Enforced collectivisation and ethnic displacement* * 27 million Soviet deaths (military + civilian), most devastating conflict in Russian history.* * Forced industrial labour migration (millions moved east to avoid Nazi occupation).* * Women took on massive wartime roles in factories and the military, but post-war Stalin reinforced traditional gender roles.* *Wars that Had Limited Social Impact* * Crimean War -- Some reforms but no mass upheaval* * Serfdom abolished in 1861, but largely for economic and military efficiency rather than social justice.* * Education and military reforms (e.g., 1874 universal conscription), but nobility retained power.* * Cold War -- Limited domestic social change* * Repression remained (Brezhnev's era = stagnation, censorship, KGB control).* * No large-scale upheaval until Gorbachev's glasnost (1980s).* *Evaluation:* * WWI and Civil War = most radical social change (abolition of class system, Bolshevik dictatorship).* * WWII = huge demographic loss and economic shift but reinforced state power.* * Crimea and Cold War had incremental change at best.* *Economic Change* *Wars that Led to Economic Transformation* * WWII -- Industrialisation but devastation* * USSR's GDP fell by 34% during war but recovered due to Five-Year Plans (1946--50).* * War economy prioritised heavy industry and military spending (15% of GDP in Cold War).* * Civil War -- War Communism and NEP* * War Communism (1918--21) → nationalised industry, grain requisitioning = economic collapse (famine killed 5 million).* * NEP (1921--28) -- Partial return to capitalism, stabilised economy but abandoned under Stalin.* *Wars that Had Lesser Economic Impact* * Crimean War -- Exposed backwardness, led to industrial reform* * Russia's army had muskets vs. British rifles---exposed economic weakness, leading to railway expansion (20,000 km by 1880).* * Cold War -- Economic stagnation* * Military spending crippled consumer industry, leading to economic decline by 1980s.* * War was economically draining, but changes came post-1991 collapse, not during.* *Evaluation:* * WWII = greatest long-term economic change (superpower but at massive cost).* * Civil War = transition from Tsarist to Communist economy (NEP as a turning point).* * Cold War = economic stagnation, leading to USSR collapse.* *Final Evaluation* * Most transformative war = WWI (political + social revolution).* * Most devastating = WWII (economic destruction but industrial recovery).* * Least impactful = Russo-Turkish (no major domestic change).* *2. WHY DID WARS HAVE DIFFERENT LEVELS OF IMPACT?* *(Assessing Type of War, Outcome, Government, and Pre-War Conditions)* *Introduction* * Wars had different levels of impact due to:* *1. Type of war (Total war vs. limited war).* *2. Outcome (Victory reinforced power, defeat exposed weaknesses).* *3. Pre-existing conditions (Crisis before war = greater change).* * Most impactful wars = WWI (1917 Revolution) and WWII (Soviet superpower).* * Least impactful = Russo-Turkish War (1877--78) and Cold War (stagnation).* *Factor 1: Type of War -- Total vs. Limited* * Total Wars = Massive impact (WWI, WWII, Civil War).* * Limited Wars = Minimal change (Russo-Turkish, Crimean).* * WWI caused more change than Crimea because it was total war, requiring full economic mobilisation.* *Factor 2: Outcome -- Victory vs. Defeat* * Biggest change = Russian defeats (WWI = Revolution, Russo-Japanese = 1905 Revolution).* * Victories reinforced autocracy (WWII strengthened Stalin).* *Factor 3: Pre-Existing Conditions* * Revolutions only happened when war coincided with domestic crisis (WWI + 1917).* * Cold War lasted 45 years but USSR collapsed due to economic decline, not military defeat.* *Final Evaluation* * Most impactful wars = WWI (total war, defeat, pre-existing crisis).* * Least impactful = Russo-Turkish War, Cold War (limited war, no radical change).* *Let me know if you want even more depth!* *3. WHY WERE WARS FOUGHT?* *(Assessing Ideology, International Threat, and Domestic Distraction)* *Introduction* * Russia fought wars for ideological, strategic, and domestic political reasons, but motivations varied in intensity and consequence.* * International threats were often the most immediate triggers (Crimea, Russo-Japanese, WWII), yet ideology became increasingly dominant in later conflicts (Civil War, Cold War).* * Wars fought to deflect attention from domestic issues (Russo-Turkish, Russo-Japanese, WWI) were particularly dangerous, as they exposed rather than concealed weaknesses.* *Factor 1: Ideology -- Justifying War for Political or National Identity* *Pan-Slavism and Nationalism* * Crimean War (1853--56): Tsar Nicholas I justified war as a holy duty to defend Orthodox Christians in Ottoman lands, but in reality, it was a power play against Britain and France over influence in the Balkans.* * Russo-Turkish War (1877--78): Stronger ideological commitment to Pan-Slavism---Russia sought to free Balkan Slavs from Ottoman rule. But was this truly ideological? Alexander II quickly abandoned Bulgaria at Congress of Berlin (1878), showing pragmatism over conviction.* * WWI (1914--18): Pan-Slavism at its peak---Russia positioned itself as the protector of Serbia against Austria-Hungary, but entry into war was reckless, as Russia's economy and military were unprepared (shortage of rifles, transport system breakdown).* *Revolutionary and Communist Ideology* * Civil War (1918--21): Purely ideological war---Bolsheviks framed it as a struggle between proletariat (Reds) and bourgeois counter-revolutionaries (Whites).* * Cold War (1945--91): Unlike previous wars, this was entirely ideological---a battle between Soviet Communism and Western Capitalism, justifying interventions in Eastern Europe (Hungary 1956, Czechoslovakia 1968).* * However, ideology often masked practical concerns---e.g., Stalin's intervention in Eastern Europe was about securing a buffer zone, not spreading communism.* *Evaluation:* * Earlier wars (Crimea, Russo-Turkish, WWI) used ideology as a veneer for strategic concerns.* * Later wars (Civil War, Cold War) were genuinely driven by ideology, with real systemic consequences (establishment of Soviet system, global Cold War conflicts).* * Yet, even in ideological wars, practical geopolitics shaped outcomes.* *Factor 2: International Threat and Geopolitical Positioning* *Fear of Isolation and Strategic Competition* * Crimean War (1853--56): Russia feared Britain and France would dominate the Balkans and weaken its influence in the Ottoman Empire.* * Russo-Japanese War (1904--05): The first war against a non-European power---Russia sought control over Port Arthur and Manchuria but underestimated Japan's modern military. Failure exposed Russia's backwardness, prompting the 1905 Revolution.* * WWII (1941--45): Defensive war against Hitler's Operation Barbarossa (June 1941), the largest invasion in history. USSR lost 27 million people but emerged as a superpower.* * Cold War (1945--91): Arms race and proxy wars (Vietnam, Afghanistan) reflected ongoing fear of Western military superiority.* *Evaluation:* * International threats consistently dictated Russian war involvement.* * Greatest miscalculation = Russo-Japanese War (1904--05), as Russia underestimated Japan and suffered major defeat.* * WWII was the most existential international threat---Germany sought total destruction of the USSR.* *Factor 3: Domestic Distraction -- Using War to Suppress Internal Unrest* *Wars as a Tool for Domestic Stability* * Russo-Turkish War (1877--78): War used to divert attention from peasant unrest following the Emancipation of the Serfs (1861).* * Russo-Japanese War (1904--05): Nicholas II saw war as a way to unite Russia and suppress calls for reform. Backfired spectacularly---defeat led to the 1905 Revolution.* * WWI (1914--18): Tsar Nicholas II entered war partly to silence opposition, but war exacerbated economic collapse, leading to the February Revolution (1917).* * Cold War (1945--91): Used to justify repression (e.g., Brezhnev's crackdown on dissent), but ultimately bankrupted the USSR (military spending 15% of GDP).* *Evaluation:* * Wars meant to stabilise Russia often had the opposite effect---failure in Russo-Japanese War, WWI, and Afghanistan (Cold War) led to political upheaval.* * Greatest domestic backfire = WWI (1917), as it directly caused the collapse of Tsarism.* *Final Evaluation* * International threats were the most consistent war motive (Crimea, Russo-Japanese, WWII, Cold War).* * Ideology grew as a driver in the 20th century (Civil War, Cold War).* * Wars fought to distract from domestic issues (Russo-Turkish, Russo-Japanese, WWI) were high-risk and often resulted in crisis.* * Most reckless war decision = WWI, as it was neither winnable nor necessary and directly led to revolution.* *4. TURNING POINTS* *(Assessing Political, Social, and Economic Impact)* *Introduction* * Turning points can be defined by political regime change (1917), social transformation (WWII), and economic overhaul (NEP, post-WWII industrialisation).* * Some wars accelerated change (Crimean War, WWII), while others led to stagnation or decline (Russo-Japanese, Cold War).* *Political Turning Points* *Collapse of Tsarism* * WWI (1914--18) was the ultimate political turning point.* * February 1917: Tsar abdicated, ending 300 years of Romanov rule.* * October 1917: Bolsheviks took power, leading to Civil War (1918--21).* *Strengthening of Autocracy* * Crimean War (1853--56): Forced reforms (Zemstva 1864), but autocracy remained.* * WWII (1941--45): Stalin's power expanded, USSR became a global superpower.* *Final Collapse of the USSR* * Cold War (1945--91) led to stagnation, economic collapse, and Soviet dissolution (1991).* *Evaluation:* * WWI was the biggest political turning point (end of Tsarism, rise of Bolsheviks).* * Cold War (1991) was the final death of Russian autocracy (until Putin?).* *Social and Economic Turning Points* * WWI and Civil War = most devastating social impact (famine, purges, collapse of economy).* * WWII = economic turning point (USSR became an industrial power, but at massive human cost).* * Cold War (1991) = final economic collapse.* *Final Evaluation* * WWI (1917) = biggest political turning point.* * WWII (1941--45) = biggest social and economic impact.* * Cold War (1991) = final collapse.* *These plans now have maximal evidence, high-level evaluation, thematic synthesis, and historiographical depth. Let me know if you want even more refinement!*