ICAO DOC 9995 Manual of Evidence-based Training PDF

Doc 9995 AN/497 Manual of Evidence-based Training Approved by the Secretary General and published under his authority First Edition — 2013 International Civil Aviation Organization Doc 9995 AN/497 Manual of Evidence-based Training ________________________________ Approved by the Secretary General and published under his authority First Edition — 2013 International Civil Aviation Organization Published in separate English, Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish editions by the INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION 999 University Street, Montréal, Quebec, Canada H3C 5H7 For ordering information and for a complete listing of sales agents and booksellers, please go to the ICAO website at www.icao.int Doc 9995, Manual of Evidence-based Training Order Number: 9995 ISBN 978-92-9249-242-7 © ICAO 2013 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, without prior permission in writing from the International Civil Aviation Organization. AMENDMENTS Amendments are announced in the supplements to the Catalogue of ICAO Publications; the Catalogue and its supplements are available on the ICAO website at www.icao.int. The space below is provided to keep a record of such amendments. RECORD OF AMENDMENTS AND CORRIGENDA AMENDMENTS CORRIGENDA No. Date Entered by No. Date Entered by (iii) FOREWORD This manual is intended to provide guidance to Civil Aviation Authorities, operators and approved training organizations in the recurrent assessment and training of pilots referred to in Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft, Part I, International Commercial Air Transport — Aeroplanes, paragraphs 9.3, Flight crew member training programmes, and 9.4.4, Pilot proficiency checks. Implementation guidance is contained in the Evidence-based Training Implementation Guide (2012, a joint publication by ICAO, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) and the International Federation of Airline Pilots Associations), available from the IATA website at www.iata.org. First Edition At the inaugural meeting to develop constituent elements of the International Air Transport Association (IATA) Training and Qualification Initiative (ITQI) in 2007, representations were made by stakeholders to include a strategic review of airline pilot training as part of the sponsored activity. The background to these representations is as follows: progress in the design and reliability of modern aircraft, a rapidly changing operational environment and the realization that not enough has been done to address the human factors issue required a strategic review of airline pilot training. In addition to the wealth of accident and incident reports, the provision of flight data analysis offers the possibility to identify risks encountered in actual operations and to tailor training programmes to mitigate those risks that flight crew members face in operations. In response, IATA facilitated the creation of an international working group to conduct the strategic review of airline pilot training, commencing with the recurrent training element. The international working group comprised Civil Aviation Authorities, academic institutions, aircraft original equipment manufacturers, airlines, international organizations, pilot representative bodies and training organizations. The international working group established a new methodology for the development and conduct of a recurrent training and assessment programme, titled Evidence-based Training (EBT), which is fully described in this manual. The aim of this programme is to identify, develop and evaluate the competencies required to operate safely, effectively and efficiently in a commercial air transport environment whilst addressing the most relevant threats according to evidence collected in accidents, incidents, flight operations and training. This document is intended to enable the implementation of more effective training to improve operational safety. Additionally, and recognizing the criticality of competent instructors in any training programme, the manual provides specific additional guidance on the required qualifications of instructors delivering EBT. Since the underpinning data analysis is what guides the content of Evidence-based Training programmes, the associated data and related documents will be subject to a systematic review and update process to ensure their continued accuracy and the relevance of guidance material. Comments on this manual, particularly with respect to its application, usefulness and scope of coverage, would be appreciated. These will be taken into consideration in the preparation of subsequent editions. Comments concerning the manual should be addressed to: The Secretary General International Civil Aviation Organization 999 University Street, Montréal, Quebec H3C 5H7 Canada (v) (vi) Manual of Evidence-based Training The following list contains the member organizations of the international working group, and other organizations that contributed towards the development of EBT: Air Arabia Flight Safety International Air France General Civil Aviation Authority – United Arab Emirates Air Berlin Griffith University Airbus S.A.S. Gulf Air ATR Gulf Aviation Academy The Boeing Company International Air Transport Association Bombardier Inc. International Civil Aviation Organization British Airways Plc International Federation of Airline Pilots Associations (IFALPA) CAE Inc. LOSA Collaborative Cathay Pacific Airways Ltd. LMQ Ltd Civil Aviation Authority – United Kingdom Mechtronix Systems Inc. Civil Aviation Department – Hong Kong, China National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR) - Netherlands Civil Aviation Safety Authority – Australia Oxford Aviation Academy Delta Airlines Inc. Qantas Airways Ltd Deutsche Lufthansa AG Qatar Airways Dragonair Research Integrations Inc. Direction générale de l'aviation civile – France Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS) EasyJet Royal Holloway, University of London Embraer S.A. Saudi Arabian Airlines Emirates Airline Thomsonfly Ltd ETOPS S.A.S. Transport Canada Etihad Airways Virgin Australia European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Wizz Air European Cockpit Association (ECA) Federal Aviation Administration – United States of America ______________________ TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Glossary............................................................................................................................................................ (xi) Abbreviations and acronyms............................................................................................................................. (xv) Publications....................................................................................................................................................... (xvii) PART I. EVIDENCE-BASED TRAINING DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRAMME OUTLINE Chapter 1. Background................................................................................................................................... I-1-1 Chapter 2. Applicability and aims................................................................................................................... I-2-1 2.1 Applicability.................................................................................................................................... I-2-1 2.2 Aims............................................................................................................................................... I-2-1 2.3 Benefits.......................................................................................................................................... I-2-2 Chapter 3. Principles and Programme Philosophy......................................................................................... I-3-1 3.1 Background.................................................................................................................................... I-3-1 3.2 Competencies................................................................................................................................ I-3-2 3.3 Training criticality survey................................................................................................................ I-3-2 3.4 Data collection................................................................................................................................ I-3-4 3.5 Data analysis.................................................................................................................................. I-3-4 3.6 Recurrent assessment and training — Programme outline............................................................ I-3-7 3.7 Guidance for regulatory oversight.................................................................................................. I-3-8 3.8 EBT recurrent assessment and training programme phases.......................................................... I-3-8 Chapter 4. Implementation of the baseline EBT programme.......................................................................... I-4-1 4.1 General principles.......................................................................................................................... I-4-1 4.2 Staged implementation................................................................................................................... I-4-1 4.3 Baseline EBT programme.............................................................................................................. I-4-2 Chapter 5. Implementation of the enhanced EBT programme....................................................................... I-5-1 5.1 Enhanced EBT programme............................................................................................................ I-5-1 5.2 Collection and analysis of operations data..................................................................................... I-5-1 5.3 Collection and analysis of training data.......................................................................................... I-5-3 5.4 Integration of analysis..................................................................................................................... I-5-4 5.5 Programme development............................................................................................................... I-5-4 (vii) (viii) Manual of Evidence-based Training Page Chapter 6. Pilots and instructors..................................................................................................................... I-6-1 6.1 Pilots............................................................................................................................................... I-6-1 6.2 Instructors — General.................................................................................................................... I-6-1 6.3 Instructors — EBT.......................................................................................................................... I-6-1 Chapter 7. Conduct of EBT............................................................................................................................ I-7-1 7.1 General........................................................................................................................................... I-7-1 7.2 Preparation..................................................................................................................................... I-7-1 7.3 Briefing........................................................................................................................................... I-7-1 7.4 Evaluation phase............................................................................................................................ I-7-2 7.5 Manoeuvres training phase............................................................................................................ I-7-2 7.6 Scenario-based training phase....................................................................................................... I-7-3 7.7 Assessment.................................................................................................................................... I-7-3 7.8 Debriefing....................................................................................................................................... I-7-3 PART II. EVIDENCE-BASED TRAINING PROGRAMME Chapter 1. Description of the process for developing an EBT recurrent training programme......................... II-1-1 1.1 General........................................................................................................................................... II-1-1 1.2 Guidance for using the EBT recurrent assessment and training matrix.......................................... II-1-2 1.3 Implementation of a baseline EBT programme.............................................................................. II-1-4 1.4 EBT modules.................................................................................................................................. II-1-4 1.5 Evaluation phase............................................................................................................................ II-1-4 1.6 Manoeuvres training phase............................................................................................................ II-1-5 1.7 Scenario-based training phase....................................................................................................... II-1-5 Attachment to Chapter 1. Summary process for end users wishing to implement the baseline EBT programme............................................................................... II-1-Att-1 Chapter 2. Regulatory approval...................................................................................................................... II-2-1 2.1 National Civil Aviation Authorities................................................................................................... II-2-1 2.2 Regulatory considerations.............................................................................................................. II-2-1 2.3 Obtaining regulatory approval........................................................................................................ II-2-2 Appendix 1. Core competencies and behavioural indicators................................................................... II-App 1-1 Appendix 2. Training programme development guidance — Generation 4 (jet)..................................... II-App 2-1 2.1 General........................................................................................................................................... II-App 2-1 2.2 Assessment and training matrix..................................................................................................... II-App 2-1 Appendix 3. Training programme development guidance — Generation 3 (jet)..................................... II-App 3-1 3.1 General........................................................................................................................................... II-App 3-1 3.2 Assessment and training matrix..................................................................................................... II-App 3-1 Table of Contents (ix) Page Appendix 4. Training programme development guidance — Generation 3 (turboprop)........................ II-App 4-1 4.1 General........................................................................................................................................... II-App 4-1 4.2 Assessment and training matrix..................................................................................................... II-App 4-1 Appendix 5. Training programme development guidance — Generation 2 (jet)..................................... II-App 5-1 5.1 General........................................................................................................................................... II-App 5-1 5.2 Assessment and training matrix..................................................................................................... II-App 5-1 Appendix 6. Training programme development guidance — Generation 2 (turboprop)........................ II-App 6-1 6.1 General........................................................................................................................................... II-App 6-1 6.2 Assessment and training matrix..................................................................................................... II-App 6-1 Appendix 7. Training programme development guidance — Generation 1 (jet)..................................... II-App 7-1 ______________________ GLOSSARY Note.— Much of the information in this section comes from Annex 1 — Personnel Licensing, Annex 6 — Operation of Aircraft, Part I — International Commercial Air Transport — Aeroplanes and the Procedures for Air Navigation Services — Training (Doc 9868). Assessment. The determination as to whether a candidate meets the requirements of the competency standard. Behaviour. The way a person responds, either overtly or covertly, to a specific set of conditions, and which is capable of being measured. Behavioural indicator. An overt action performed or statement made by any flight crew member that indicates how the crew is handling the event. Competency. A combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes required to perform a task to the prescribed standard. Competency-based training. Training and assessment that are characterized by a performance orientation, emphasis on standards of performance and their measurement and the development of training to the specified performance standards. Competency element. An action that constitutes a task that has a triggering event and a terminating event that clearly defines its limits, and an observable outcome. Core competencies. A group of related behaviours, based on job requirements, which describe how to effectively perform a job and what proficient performance looks like. They include the name of the competency, a description, and a list of behavioural indicators. Critical flight manoeuvres. Manoeuvres that place significant demand on a proficient crew. Critical system malfunctions. Aircraft system malfunctions that place significant demand on a proficient crew. These malfunctions should be determined in isolation from any environmental or operational context. Error. An action or inaction by the flight crew that leads to deviations from organizational or flight crew intentions or expectations. Error management. The process of detecting and responding to errors with countermeasures that reduce or eliminate the consequences of errors, and mitigate the probability of further errors or undesired aircraft states. Evidence-based training (EBT). Training and assessment based on operational data that is characterized by developing and assessing the overall capability of a trainee across a range of core competencies rather than by measuring the performance in individual events or manoeuvres. EBT instructor. A person who has undergone a screening and selection process, successfully completed an approved course in delivering competency-based training, and is subsequently authorized to conduct recurrent assessment and training within an approved EBT programme. (xi) (xii) Manual of Evidence-based Training EBT module. A session or combination of sessions in a qualified FSTD, as part of the three-year cycle of recurrent assessment and training. EBT session. A single defined period of training in a qualified FSTD that normally forms part of an EBT module. EBT scenario. Part of an EBT session encompassing one or more scenario elements, constructed to facilitate real-time assessment or training. EBT scenario element. Part of an EBT session designed to address a specific training topic. Facilitation technique. An active training method, which uses effective questioning, listening and a non-judgemental approach and is particularly effective in developing skills and attitudes, assisting trainees to develop insight and their own solutions and resulting in better understanding, retention and commitment. Factor. A reported condition affecting an accident or incident. Flight crew member. A licensed crew member charged with duties essential to the operation of an aircraft during a flight duty period. Instructor. A person authorised to provide practical training to a trainee or student for an aviation licence, rating or endorsement. Inter-rater reliability. The consistency or stability of scores between different raters. Line-oriented flight scenario. Training and assessment involving a realistic, “real time”, full mission simulation of scenarios that are representative of line operations. Note.— Special emphasis should be given to scenarios which involve a broad set of core competencies. It simulates the total line operational environment for the purpose of training and assessment of flight crew members. Manoeuvres. A sequence of deliberate actions to achieve a desired flight path. Flight path control may be accomplished by a variety of means including manual aircraft control and the use of auto flight systems. Performance criteria. Simple, evaluative statements on the required outcome of the competency element and a description of the criteria used to measure whether the required level of performance has been achieved. Phase of flight. A defined period within a flight. Scenario. Part of a training module plan that consists of predetermined manoeuvres and training events. Threat. Events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the flight crew, increase operational complexity and must be managed to maintain the margin of safety. Threat management. The process of detecting and responding to threats with countermeasures that reduce or eliminate the consequences of threats and mitigate the probability of errors or undesired aircraft states. Training event. Part of a training scenario that enables a set of competencies to be exercised. Glossary (xiii) Training objective. A clear statement that is comprised of three parts, i.e. the desired performance or what the trainee is expected to be able to do at the end of training (or at the end of particular stages of training), the performance standard that must be attained to confirm the trainee’s level of competence, and the conditions under which the trainee will demonstrate competence. Unsafe situation. A situation, which has led to an unacceptable reduction in safety margin. ______________________ ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS (Used in this manual) A/C Aircraft AAL Above aerodrome level ACAS Airborne collision avoidance system ANP Actual navigation performance APP Approach AQP Advanced qualification programme ATC Air traffic control ATO Approved training organization ATQP Alternative training and qualification programme CAA Civil aviation authority CAST Commercial air safety team CLB Climb CRM Crew resource management CRZ Cruise DA Decision altitude DES Descent EBT Evidence-based training FAA Federal Aviation Administration (of the United States of America) FBW Fly by wire FDA Flight data analysis FMS Flight management system FSTD Flight simulation training device GND Ground GPS Global positioning system IATA International Air Transport Association IFALPA International Federation of Airline Pilots Associations ISI In-seat instruction KSA Knowledge, skills and attitudes LDG Landing LOSA Line operations safety audit MDA Minimum descent altitude MTOM Maximum take-off mass NAV Navigation Neo New engine option OEM Original equipment manufacturer(s) ops operations PF Pilot flying PM Pilot monitoring PRM Precision runway monitor RA Risk assessment or ACAS resolution advisory (context dependent) RNP Required navigation performance RNP-AR Required navigation performance — Approval required SARPs Standards and Recommended Practices SMS Safety management system SOP Standard operating procedure (xv) (xvi) Manual of Evidence-based Training TA Traffic advisory TAWS Terrain awareness and warning system TO Take-off V1 Take-off decision speed V2 Take-off safety speed ______________________ PUBLICATIONS (Referred to in this manual) Convention on International Civil Aviation (Doc 7300) Annex 1 — Personnel Licensing Annex 6 — Operation of Aircraft, Part I — International Commercial Air Transport — Aeroplanes, and Part II — International General Aviation — Aeroplanes Procedures for Air Navigation Services — Training (Doc 9868) Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of Flight Simulation Training Devices (Doc 9625), Volume I — Aeroplanes Manual on the Approval of Training Organizations (Doc 9841) Joint ICAO, IATA and IFALPA publication: Evidence-based Training Implementation Guide IATA publication: Data Report for Evidence-based Training ______________________ (xvii) Part I EVIDENCE-BASED TRAINING DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRAMME OUTLINE Chapter 1 BACKGROUND 1.1 The development of Evidence-based Training (EBT) arose from an industry-wide consensus that in order to reduce the aircraft hull loss and fatal accident rates, a strategic review of recurrent and type-rating training for airline pilots was necessary. The existing airline pilot training requirements in national regulations are largely based on the evidence of hull losses from early generation jets, and on a simple view that, in order to mitigate a risk, simply repeating an event in a training programme was sufficient. Over time, many new events occurred and the subsequent addition of these events to the training requirements saturated recurrent training programmes and created an inventory or "tick box" approach to training. 1.2 At the same time, aircraft design and reliability improved substantially, leading to a situation where many accidents occurred in aircraft that were operating without malfunction. Controlled flight into terrain is a good example of this principle, resulting in a hull loss where inadequate situation awareness is almost always a contributing factor. 1.3 It is impossible to foresee all plausible accident scenarios, especially in today’s aviation system where its complexity and high reliability mean that the next accident may be something completely unexpected. EBT addresses this by moving from pure scenario-based training, to prioritizing the development and assessment of key competencies, leading to a better training outcome. The scenarios recommended in EBT are simply a vehicle and a means to assess and develop competence. Mastering a finite number of competencies should allow a pilot to manage situations in flight that are unforeseen by the aviation industry and for which the pilot has not been specifically trained. 1.4 The core competencies identified in EBT encompass what was previously known as both technical and non-technical knowledge, skills and attitudes, aligning the training content with the actual competencies necessary in the context of contemporary aviation. 1.5 The availability of useful data covering both flight operations and training activity has improved substantially over the last 20 years. Data sources such as flight data analysis, flight observation in normal operations (e.g. LOSA) and air safety reports give a detailed insight into the threats, errors and risks encountered in flight operations and their relation to unwanted consequences. An enhanced analysis of training results demonstrates important differences of training needs between different manoeuvres and aircraft generations. Availability of such data has both established the need for the EBT effort and supported the definition of the resulting training concept and curriculum. Note 1.— The compendium of the data referred to in paragraph 1.5 is documented in the Data Report for Evidence-based Training, which can be obtained free-of-charge from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) web-site. Note 2.— Paragraph 3.1.2 provides a list of aeroplane types grouped in six generations. 1.6 The aim of this programme is to develop and evaluate the identified competencies required to operate safely, effectively and efficiently in a commercial air transport environment whilst addressing the most relevant threats I-1-1 I-1-2 Manual of Evidence-based Training according to evidence collected in accidents, incidents, flight operations and training. This manual is intended to enable the implementation of more effective training to improve operational safety, focusing on the recurrent training of airline pilots. Additionally and recognizing the criticality of competent instructors in any training programme, the manual provides specific additional guidance on the required qualifications of instructors delivering EBT. ______________________ Chapter 2 APPLICABILITY AND AIMS 2.1 APPLICABILITY 2.1.1 This manual is intended to provide guidance to civil aviation authorities, operators and approved training organizations in the recurrent assessment and training of pilots conducted in flight simulation training devices (FSTDs), referred to in Annex 6 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Operation of Aircraft, Part I, International commercial Air Transport — Aeroplanes, 9.3, Flight crew member training programmes, and 9.4.4, Pilot proficiency checks in addition to Annex 1 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Personnel Licensing, 1.2.5, Validity of licenses. It may also provide guidance for approved training organizations engaged in the recurrent assessment and training of flight crew operating large or turbojet aeroplanes in accordance with Annex 6, Part II — International General Aviation — Aeroplanes (Section 3 refers). 2.1.2 This manual includes guidance for the development of training programmes and the assessment of flight crew performance, in addition to information for instructors conducting the training. The purpose of training and assessment within this programme is to establish competency and provide for continuous and measurable improvement in flight crew performance during line operations. 2.1.3 Aeroplanes considered for application of the guidance in this manual are those with a certified seating capacity of 50 or more passengers for turbo-jet aeroplanes referred to in this manual as jets, and of 30 or more passengers for turbo-propeller aeroplanes referred to in this manual as turboprops. 2.1.4 This manual does not formally consider training media, but will assume that the assessment and training described will be conducted in an FSTD qualified to an appropriate level in accordance with CAA rules (Doc 9625 — Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of Flight Simulation Training Devices refers). It is recognized that there will be aspects of any recurrent training programme which are conducted outside the environment of a qualified FSTD, but the EBT programme described in this manual is intended to relate only to FSTD assessment and training. 2.2 AIMS 2.2.1 Chapter 5, Evidence-based Training, of the Procedures for Air Navigation Services — Training (Doc 9868) contains high-level provisions for the implementation of EBT1. This manual expands on those provisions and provides to civil aviation authorities the detailed guidance necessary for the effective oversight of the development and implementation of an EBT recurrent assessment and training programme for pilots in FSTDs. Note.— Guidance for the implementation of an EBT training programme by an organization is contained in the Evidence-based Training Implementation Guide, a joint ICAO, IATA and IFALPA publication. 2.2.2 EBT recognizes the need to develop and evaluate crew performance according to a set of competencies without necessarily distinguishing between the “non-technical” (e.g. CRM) and the “technical” competencies needed in 1 Introduced in Amendment 2 to Doc 9868. I-2-1 I-2-2 Manual of Evidence-based Training order to operate safely. Any area of competence assessed not to meet the required level of performance shall also be associated with an observable behaviour that could lead to an unacceptable reduction in safety margin. 2.3 BENEFITS 2.3.1 The paradigm shift proposed under the EBT programme is not simply to replace a sometimes outdated set of critical events with a new set, but to use the events as a vehicle for developing and assessing crew performance across a range of necessary competencies. In addition, EBT refocuses the instructor population onto analysis of the root causes to correct inappropriate actions, rather than simply asking a flight crew member to repeat a manoeuvre with no real understanding as to why it was not successfully flown in the first instance. 2.3.2 Finally, it is recognized that in today’s high-fidelity simulator environment, very sophisticated training tools exist that are often not used effectively, as regulation is biased much more towards checking. EBT seeks to redress the imbalance between training and checking. It recognizes that an assessment of competence is necessary, but once completed, pilots learn more effectively when being trained by competent instructors to perform tasks and manage events measured according to a given set of behavioural indicators, while not under pure test conditions. ______________________ Chapter 3 PRINCIPLES AND PROGRAMME PHILOSOPHY 3.1 BACKGROUND 3.1.1 General. This chapter is intended to describe the development and construction of the baseline EBT programme, and the work that was undertaken to develop the specific guidance material in Appendices 2 to 7 to Part II, containing the generation-specific training matrix and model programmes. 3.1.2 Applicability. The EBT programme and philosophy is intended to be applied as the means of assessing and training key areas of flight crew performance in a recurrent training system, according to Annex 6, Part I, 9.3, Flight crew member training programmes, and 9.4.4, Pilot proficiency checks. The EBT programme takes into account the differences between aeroplane generations by tailoring the recurrent training programme to the particular aeroplane generation. The following is considered to be representative of the generations of aeroplanes considered within this manual. Generation 4 — Jet A318/A319/A320/A321 (including neo), A330, A340-200/300, A340-500/600, B777, A380, B787, A350, Bombardier C Series, Embraer E170/E175/E190/E195 Generation 3 — Jet A310/A300-600, B737-300/400/500, B737-600/700/800 (NG), B737 MAX, B757, B767, B747-400, B747-8, B717, BAE 146, MD11, MD80, MD90, F70, F100, Bombardier CRJ Series, Embraer ERJ 135/145 Generation 3 — Turboprop ATR 42-600, ATR 72-600, Bombardier Dash 8-400, BAE ATP, Embraer 120, Saab 2000 Generation 2 — Jet A300 (except A300-600), BAC111, B727, B737-100/200, B747-100/200/300, DC9, DC10, F28, L1011 Generation 2 — Turboprop ATR 42, ATR 72 (all series except -600), BAE J-41, Fokker F27/50, Bombardier Dash 7 and Dash 8-100/200/300 Series, Convair 580-600 Series, Shorts 330 and 360, Saab 340 Generation 1 — Jet DC8, B707 3.1.3 Methodology of EBT design. EBT is a programme designed to develop and evaluate all areas of flight crew competency relevant to recurrent training. In order to do this a comprehensive list of threats and errors was created. This list is categorized by criticality with respect to aircraft generations and phases of flight. I-3-1 I-3-2 Manual of Evidence-based Training 3.2 COMPETENCIES The first component in the development of the EBT concept is a set of competencies contained in Appendix 1 to Part II. This is a complete framework of competencies, competency descriptions and related behavioural indicators, encompassing the technical and non-technical knowledge, skills and attitudes to operate safely, effectively and efficiently in a commercial air transport environment. The competencies contained in Appendix 1 to Part II were used to develop the Baseline EBT programme. However, operators are encouraged to develop their own competency system, which should list observable behavioural indicators, meeting their specific needs and including a comprehensive set of technical and non-technical knowledge, skills and attitudes. 3.3 TRAINING CRITICALITY SURVEY 3.3.1 The second component of the EBT methodology is based on a training criticality survey identifying threats and errors in each phase of flight. 3.3.2 Pilots experienced in operations and training completed individual fleet and operation specific risk analyses. These analyses were combined and collated according to aircraft generation, as listed in 3.1.2. 3.3.3 Threats and errors were listed by flight phase for eight phases of flight. In addition, potential threats and errors occurring in most if not all flight phases are listed separately in a distinct “phase”. The eight phases considered are described below. Threats/Errors All flight phases Potential threats/errors in any or all phases of flight Pre-flight and taxi Phase 1 Pre-flight and taxi: flight preparation to completion of line-up Take-off Phase 2 From the application of take-off thrust until the completion of flap and slat retraction Climb Phase 3 From the completion of flap and slat retraction until top of climb Cruise Phase 4 From top of climb until top of descent Descent Phase 5 From top of descent until the earlier of first slat/flap extension or crossing the initial approach fix Approach Phase 6 From the earlier of first slat/flap extension or crossing the initial approach fix until 15 m (50 ft) AAL, including go-around Landing Phase 7 From 15 m (50 ft) AAL until reaching taxi speed Taxi and post-flight Phase 8 From reaching taxi speed until engine shutdown 3.3.4 Potential threats and errors were characterized in three dimensions: likelihood, severity and training benefit, as follows: a) Likelihood describes the probability that over the course of a defined period in time a pilot will experience a threat, requiring intervention. Five levels of likelihood were used: Part I. Evidence-based training development and programme outline Chapter 3. Principles and Programme Philosophy I-3-3 1) Rare — once in a career or less; 2) Unlikely — a few times in a career; 3) Moderately likely — once every 3-5 years; 4) Likely — probably once a year; and 5) Almost certain — more than once a year; Note.— Example of a wind shear on take-off: likelihood level is evaluated depending on the frequency of wind shear events during which a pilot has to intervene to ensure a safe outcome, not just the frequency of the occurrence itself (which will possibly be more frequent). b) Severity describes the most likely outcome based on the assumption that the pilot has not received training to manage the defined event in five levels as follows: 1) Negligible — insignificant effect not compromising safety; 2) Minor — reduction in safety margin (but not considered a significant reduction); 3) Moderate — safety compromised or significant reduction in safety margin; 4) Major — aircraft damage and/or personal injury; and 5) Catastrophic — significant damage or fatalities; and Note.— The most likely outcome, not the worst possible outcome, should be considered. c) Training Benefit describes the effect of training to reduce the severity in b) by at least one level, and is assessed in a five-level scale as follows: 1) Unimportant — training does not reduce severity; 2) Minor — enhances performance in managing an event; 3) Moderate — having no training compromises safety; 4) Significant — safe outcome is unlikely without effective training; and 5) Critical — essential to understanding the event and coping with it. 3.4 DATA COLLECTION 3.4.1 The purpose of the data collection is to provide a reference programme of events based upon aircraft generations, to be utilized for the development of competencies in the baseline EBT programme (see Chapter 4 of this Part). It is necessary to collect real world data from accidents, incidents, flight operations and training to feed and validate course development. Data collection as described in this manual has been used to construct the baseline EBT programme, and will be reviewed and updated on a continual basis. The enhanced EBT programme described in Chapter 5 of this Part is intended to create an improvement to the baseline programme, utilising operator-specific data. I-3-4 Manual of Evidence-based Training 3.4.2 In order to develop the EBT concept, data was collected from the following entities: a) operators; b) manufacturers; c) accident investigation authorities; d) international aviation organizations; and e) Civil Aviation Authorities. 3.4.3 The following data sources were used in the data collection and are described in the Data Report for Evidence-based Training: a) Line Operations Safety Audit (LOSA) EBT reports; b) EBT study of accidents and incidents; c) flight data analysis studies; d) training data studies; e) airline pilot survey on training effectiveness; f) scientific reports; and g) training criticality survey. 3.5 DATA ANALYSIS 3.5.1 Data derivation and analysis processes. A preliminary data analysis was completed at the level of each individual data source, followed by a global corroborative analysis combining all sources. The following paragraphs describe key sources and their individual processes. a) Accident and incident analysis process. The first action consisted in a global analysis of all factors. When required, more detailed studies were performed. The following steps were adhered to unless otherwise indicated, or when data was statistically not relevant: 1) a global analysis of all aircraft generations — both combining and comparing different generations; 2) specific analysis of each aircraft generation; 3) relevance of competencies; 4) study of trend over time; 5) analysis by flight phase; Part I. Evidence-based training development and programme outline Chapter 3. Principles and Programme Philosophy I-3-5 6) evaluation of “trainability”; and 7) determination of priority of factors based on rates, risk and trainability. Note 1.— The accident and incident data considered in the analyses was normalized according to: a) all accidents and incidents; b) aircraft generation and severity (fatal or non-fatal, accident or incident); and c) the total number of departures. Note 2.— Results are expressed as rates and sometimes as risk (meaning likelihood times severity levels). b) Training criticality survey process. The training criticality survey produced a number of matrices with threats and errors by phase of flight (see 3.3.3), which were assigned 3 levels according to 3.3.4 for aircraft types listed in 3.1.2. Analysis of the training criticality survey was completed according to the following process: 1) For a given generation the median of the distribution of the calculated results from the risk matrix (the product of likelihood, severity and training benefit levels) was identified across all phases. Everything above the median was retained provided the training benefit level was indicated at 3 (moderate) or above; 2) The median of the distribution of the risk (the product of likelihood and severity levels) was identified across all flight phases. Everything not considered in i) and above this median was retained; 3) All items not retained in i) and ii) with a training benefit 4 (significant) or above were identified. Every item complying with this criterion was retained; and Note.— Any item evaluated to be relevant in only one flight phase was considered in that specific phase. Any item evaluated to be relevant in multiple phases can be trained in any of these phases. iv) A conclusion with relative weighting was determined. c) Evidence Table process. The Evidence Table includes findings from the various sources. The following process was adhered to: 1) findings were identified with several keywords; and 2) the findings determined a set of conclusions by which training priority was determined. Note 1.— Where applicable, findings were identified to reinforce the accident/incident factor analysis. Note 2.— The Evidence Table is contained in the Data Report for Evidence-based Training. I-3-6 Manual of Evidence-based Training 3.5.2 Data Report for Evidence-based Training. This is a broadly based study using multiple industry sources and different types of analytical techniques. The conclusions yielded by the study are sourced from a large number of mutually reinforcing findings from various independent analyses, including those below. a) Line operations safety audit (LOSA) and supporting data. 1) The key study defining the focus of the effort is a LOSA report, produced by The LOSA Collaborative, containing the analysis of approximately 10 000 flights within the LOSA archival database. The observed operational flight deck situations were examined from the perspective of how they relate directly or indirectly to training needs. 2) Several other studies augment and support the LOSA report, addressing automation, psychomotor skill decay and detailed results from operators using the Advanced Qualification Programme (AQP) or the Alternative Training and Qualification Programme (ATQP). Operators using these advanced training programmes provided extensive information over a three-year period, including detailed metrics of training and operational data. 3) In addition, various operators provided flight recorder data, for the purpose of flight data analysis with a standardized set of events and technical parameters. Over 3 million flights were analysed from various regions of the world. This flight data study confirms and provides deeper insight into, as well as quantitative measures for, some of the important issues raised by the LOSA report. b) Analysis of hull loss and fatal accidents. 1) A second component of the report is an accident and incident analysis of all data within the United States of America’s National Transport Safety Board (NTSB) accident and incident database from 1962 to 2010. Over 3 000 accidents and incidents were analysed with respect to the threats and errors contained in the training criticality survey (see paragraph 3.3) of over 20 types and 6 generations of aircraft. The results of this study are used to test the degree of consistency with the methodology for EBT development. 2) This same accident and incident analysis also looks at the EBT competencies (contained in Appendix 1 to Part II) from the standpoint of how they distribute themselves over the history of accidents and over the generations of aircraft as a way of demonstrating training needs. The study also surveys the opinions of the pilot analysts regarding whether improved training could have mitigated to some degree the outcome of the accidents and incidents analysed. c) Other sources. Finally, various other methods are used to determine the results and conclusions of the report. These included a survey of pilots, who were asked to make comments on the suitability of existing recurrent training programmes. In addition, several industry and aviation safety studies were used to test consistency with the analyses performed as part of the EBT development. Certain other studies were used for contextual or background methodology information. These included the Commercial Air Safety Team (CAST) accident analysis data tables and results from other FAA studies showing technical training and operational characteristics across aircraft types and aircraft generational differences. 3.5.3 Review process. It is intended that this work will continue to be reviewed periodically using any trends highlighted during continuing analysis of line operations, training systems and fatal accident and hull losses. The guidance contained within this manual will be amended accordingly. Part I. Evidence-based training development and programme outline Chapter 3. Principles and Programme Philosophy I-3-7 3.6 RECURRENT ASSESSMENT AND TRAINING — PROGRAMME OUTLINE 3.6.1 The EBT recurrent assessment and training of the competencies (contained in Appendix 1 to Part II) are considered over a three-year recurrent assessment and training cycle. For the purposes of the construction of model training programmes as listed in Appendices 2 to 7 to Part II, the programme has been developed to include a notional exemplar 48 hours for each crew member over a three-year period in a suitably qualified flight simulation training device (FSTD). The training programme is divided into modules. The three phases of a module (evaluation, manoeuvres training and scenario-based training) are described in Chapter 7 of Part I. 3.6.2 The evaluation phase of each module will periodically be the focus of licence renewal or revalidation, and may ultimately be the means by which Licensing Authorities continue to ensure that competence is maintained to hold a professional licence and type rating as applicable. 3.6.3 Assessment and grading system. A full description of the competencies is provided in Appendix 1 to Part II. It is essential to note that an operator intending to use this framework should in addition develop a clear assessment and grading system for expected crew performance. Competencies are a fundamental component of the grading system. It is not the intention of this document to fully describe a grading system, but a grading system should be used for crew assessment, in addition to providing quantifiable data for the measurement of the training system performance. It can range from a simple “acceptable/unacceptable” grading performance system to a graduated relative measurement system. 3.6.4 Assessment and training guidance. The assessment and training guidance matrix is an extraction of all threats and errors from the relevant training critically survey data correlated to specific training scenarios amplified by behavioural indicators and competencies considered critical to the management of a specified threat or error. For details, see Appendices 2 to 7 to Part II. 3.6.5 Training to competency. The core principle of EBT is training to competency. It is based on a systematic approach through which assessment and training are based on the measurement of how well a trainee demonstrates a set of competencies. 3.6.6 Quality management. The training system performance should be measured and evaluated in respect of the organizational objectives. Monitoring should include a feedback system to identify trends and ensure corrective action where necessary. The quality system of the operator or training organization, as defined in Doc 9841, the Manual on the Approval of Training Organizations, should monitor alignment with the EBT assessment and training guidelines recommended in this manual. 3.6.7 Feedback system. For the purpose of collecting data from an EBT programme, and making adjustments and continuous improvement to the training system, an operator should implement a performance feedback system utilising defined metrics (see paragraph 5.3). 3.6.8 Future development. The programme should be reviewed periodically and consider: a) potential new threats and errors; b) potential changes in priority based upon data; and c) feedback from existing EBT programmes. 3.6.9 Continuing data analysis. Whilst the EBT data analysis is substantial and supportive of the programmes described in this manual, this does not mean that it is sufficient over a long period of time. There is a clear need for regular and where necessary, substantial update and expansion. New data will be acquired and analysed according to the key principles established in this manual. New sources will provide a continuing and expanded review of operations, I-3-8 Manual of Evidence-based Training training and safety events. The training criticality survey will be developed in order to provide corroboration and correlation across multisource data results and most importantly, continual access to professional expertise. Data analyses undertaken with the rigor and spirit of the EBT data study are a key foundation to improve safety by better training. This manual will be updated as a result of the continuing data analysis. 3.7 GUIDANCE FOR REGULATORY OVERSIGHT Early engagement and partnership with the national CAA is crucial to the success of EBT implementation. Suggested processes for regulatory approval are provided in Chapter 2 of Part II. Where pilot representative bodies exist, it is also recommended that they are engaged from the outset. 3.8 EBT RECURRENT ASSESSMENT AND TRAINING PROGRAMME PHASES 3.8.1 Each periodic EBT module should consist of a session or sessions in a suitably qualified FSTD. Each module should normally contain the following three phases (in certain circumstances the CAA may accept that the evaluation phase is conducted in a different sequence than the one advocated in this manual; this is intended to enable coherence with certain existing AQP programmes): a) Evaluation phase. This phase consists of scenarios developed in accordance with the methodology described in Chapter 7 of this Part. The assessment should be realistic and the scenario should be representative of the operator’s environment. b) Manoeuvres training phase. This phase consists of manoeuvres that place significant demand on a proficient crew. Manoeuvres in this context mean a sequence of deliberate actions to achieve a prescribed flight path or to perform a prescribed event to a prescribed outcome. Flight path control may be accomplished by a variety of means, including manual aircraft control and the use of auto flight systems. Lists of manoeuvres are provided in Appendices 2 to 7 to Part II, according to aircraft generation with indications of the recommended frequency of the manoeuvre in an EBT programme; and c) Scenario-based training phase. This phase forms the largest phase in the EBT programme, and is designed to focus on the development of competencies, whilst training to mitigate the most critical risks identified for the aircraft generation. The phase will include the management of specific threats and errors in a real-time line orientated environment. The scenarios will include critical external and environmental threats, in addition to building effective crew interaction to identify and correct errors. A portion of the phase will also be directed towards the management of critical system malfunctions. For this programme to be fully effective, it is important to recognise that these predetermined scenarios are simply a means to develop competency, and not an end or “tick box” exercise in themselves. 3.8.2 Practical training in the management of aircraft system malfunctions. Aircraft system malfunctions to be considered for the evaluation and scenario-based training phases are those that place a significant demand on a proficient crew. All malfunctions not covered by this characteristic continue to require review and appropriate procedural knowledge training with different means than considered in the recurrent EBT training conducted in an FSTD. 3.8.3 Equivalency of malfunctions. Equivalent groups of aircraft system malfunctions can be determined by reference to malfunction characteristics and the underlying elements of crew performance required to manage them. Demonstrated proficiency in the management of one malfunction is then considered equivalent to demonstrated Part I. Evidence-based training development and programme outline Chapter 3. Principles and Programme Philosophy I-3-9 proficiency for the other malfunctions in the same group. Malfunction characteristics should be considered in isolation from any environmental or operational context, as set out in Table I-3-1 below. Table I-3-1. Malfunction characteristics and crew performance Characteristic Description of required crew performance Examples Immediacy System malfunctions requiring immediate and urgent Fire, smoke, loss of pressurisation at crew intervention or decision high altitude, failures during take-off, brake failure during landing Complexity System malfunctions requiring complex procedures Multiple hydraulic system failures, smoke and fumes procedures Degradation of System malfunctions resulting in significant degradation Jammed flight controls, certain aircraft control of flight controls in combination with abnormal handling degradation of FBW control characteristics Loss of System failures that require monitoring and Unreliable primary flight path instrumentation management of the flight path using degraded or information, unreliable airspeed alternative displays Management of System failures that require extensive management of Fuel leak consequences their consequences (independent of operation or environment) Note.— This refers to the case of recurrent training and assessment conducted in an FSTD qualified by the CAA at the appropriate level for recurrent training and assessment. Other malfunctions not covered by the characteristics detailed in 3.8.2 and 3.8.3 continue to require review and appropriate procedural knowledge training conducted in a less qualified but suitable environment (classroom, flight procedures training device, etc.), as an additional component of EBT. This is intended simply as a means of offloading the need to perform such training in a highly qualified FSTD, which has much greater potential benefit in other areas. 3.8.4 Equivalency of approach types. Selection of approaches for scenario-based training should be based on the underlying elements of flight crew performance to conduct them. Equivalent groups of approaches can be determined by reference to these elements. Demonstrated proficiency in the conduct of one approach type can be considered equivalent to demonstrated proficiency for the other approach types in the same group. In order to develop the equivalency of approach types, the following parameters should be considered: a) straight in/visual alignment/circling approaches; b) level of automation; c) precision/non-precision approaches; d) internal/external guidance; e) visual segment; f) special airport approach procedures (e.g. PRM, RNP-AR); I-3-10 Manual of Evidence-based Training g) non-standard glide path; and h) low visibility operations. 3.8.5 Considerations for the frequency of approach training. Go-around training from various stages of the approach should form an integral and frequent element of approach training. Frequency of training may be reduced for types of approaches that are conducted regularly in line operation. ______________________ Chapter 4 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE BASELINE EBT PROGRAMME 4.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 4.1.1 The minimum requirements considered necessary prior to any implementation of EBT are as follows: a) development of a set of competencies (see Appendix 1), and of an assessment and grading system; b) training of instructors, including standardization and inter-rater reliability assurance; instructor training programmes should ensure the instructor’s capability to conduct the training and assessment of the competencies; c) availability of information to pilots regarding EBT principles, methodology and the set of competencies to demonstrate, including performance criteria; and d) availability of a measurement of training system performance. 4.1.2 There are various mechanisms for the implementation of EBT, which should be conducted in close consultation with the CAA and which include: a) the definition of an implementation and operations plan; b) the adaptation of the programmes defined in Appendices 2 to 7 to Part II according to the generation of aircraft (fleet) and type of operation for the operator; c) the EBT programme implementation (an initial limited trial phase should be considered by the CAA); d) the review of training effectiveness upon receipt of sufficient training system data; and e) the adjustment and continuous improvement of the training programme according to the training system feedback. Note.— Appendices F and G to the Manual on the Approval of Training Organizations (Doc 9841) also provide guidance to approved training organizations and CAAs on managing risk while planning for and implementing a proof-of-concept trial. 4.2 STAGED IMPLEMENTATION 4.2.1 An operator or ATO may consider the need for a staged implementation of an EBT programme in defined steps towards the goal of full implementation of EBT. In all circumstances the minimum requirements specified in paragraph 4.1 should be completed. Implementation may be accomplished in one or more of the following transitional steps: I-4-1 I-4-2 Manual of Evidence-based Training a) Training and assessment according to EBT principles. This means the conduct of training and assessment according to EBT principles without changing existing programme syllabus elements. Pilots should be trained in accordance with Chapter 6 of this Part, paragraph 6.1. Instructors should be selected, trained and assessed in accordance with Chapter 6 of this Part, paragraphs 6.2 and 6.3. The development and application of defined performance criteria for the behavioural indicators to training events and scenarios will enable a more effective outcome using existing programme syllabus elements. b) Mixed implementation. Implementation of a mixed EBT programme means that some portion of a recurrent assessment and training is dedicated to the application of EBT. This is a means of achieving a phased implementation where, for example, the CAA regulations or rules permit such a programme as part of the operator’s specific training and assessment, but preclude such a programme for the revalidation or renewal of pilot licences. This phased implementation recognizes the potential for such an EBT programme to be developed and implemented in advance of any future enabling regulatory changes, which may then permit total implementation. 4.3 BASELINE EBT PROGRAMME 4.3.1 In contrast to an enhanced EBT programme (described in Chapter 5 of this Part), which provides benefits in operation-specific training, the baseline EBT programme is a generation-specific, ready-made programme. It does not require detailed analysis or programme design by the operator or the ATO. It only needs the necessary adaptation to aircraft type and operation, and the development of an assessment and grading system. 4.3.2 On completion of programme implementation, all available measurement and tracking tools should continue to be used to chart improvements and degradations in flight crew performance. The data should also be utilized to facilitate further programme development and customization. 4.3.3 Documentation and records. Wherever possible, existing record keeping processes should be utilized and enhanced to provide for effective monitoring of programme effectiveness. 4.3.4 Guidance for regulatory oversight. Guidance for the CAA oversight is contained in Chapter 2 of Part II. ______________________ Chapter 5 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ENHANCED EBT PROGRAMME 5.1 ENHANCED EBT PROGRAMME The enhanced EBT development methodology takes into account operational considerations of the individual operator and has the greatest potential for improving pilot training and ultimately aviation safety. 5.2 COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF OPERATIONS DATA 5.2.1 The difference between the baseline EBT programme and an enhanced EBT programme is optimization. Data analysis provides a bridge between the baseline EBT programme and the enhanced EBT training programme using the operator’s own fleet and/or the general fleet or operation-specific data. An enhanced programme should typically result in improved effectiveness and efficiency of the training programme, but requires the collection of a sufficient base of specific data. The purpose of data collection and analysis is to provide the source from which adjustments to the training programme can be made with confidence that the result is indeed an improvement compared with the baseline programme. 5.2.2 Data collection should provide for a detailed analysis of existing threats and identify potential weaknesses in the level of the airline’s operational safety. This may also be indicated by flight crew performance. The data collection should comprise the following: a) flight data with an analysis of recent trends across the operator’s own or similar fleets, if required, in conjunction with the Data Report for Evidence-based Training, to identify and quantify differences and specific areas of threat or interest; b) training data with an analysis of recent trends across all fleets of the operator, in conjunction with the Data Report for Evidence-based Training, to identify and quantify differences and specific areas of threat or interest; this requires the development of a training measurement system; c) operator’s SMS data, including safety reports with an analysis of the operator’s safety data from all sources with specific identification of those risks that can be mitigated by pilot training; d) operator’s specific operational challenges that relate to route network, aerodromes used, weather, etc.; and e) world fleet data with an analysis of available safety data from operations with similar aircraft types and similar operations; this should include OEM data. 5.2.3 Operational characteristics of the operator. When enhancing a baseline EBT training programme, it is important to first analyse the operational characteristics of the operator. This includes aircraft types, route structure and typical sector lengths, special operations, destinations requiring special attention, pilot experience levels and culture. It is very important to focus on the most critical operational risks provided that training can demonstrably mitigate these. There should be a close correlation between training and operations. I-5-1 I-5-2 Manual of Evidence-based Training 5.2.4 Competency framework. An identical competency framework is applied to both baseline and enhanced EBT programmes. It is advantageous to develop, train and assess competencies utilising scenarios that are relevant to operations. Scenarios can sometimes be identified through the data collection and analysis process. In some cases the data may highlight certain competencies considered critical to the management of a specified threat or error in the operation, which may lead to a focus on specific areas as part of the training programme. By continuing to focus on the complete set of identified competencies, the operator’s EBT programme will continue to prepare flight crews for both known and unforeseen threats and errors. 5.2.5 Data, methods and tools. The data collection and analysis generally need to cover various types of data, both from within the training activity (inner loop) and from the flight operations and safety management system (outer loop). Data analysis can be as simple as analysing the operator’s mission and making sure that operator-specific threats are accounted for in the training programme. Alternatively, the analysis may be carried out using sophisticated flight data analysis software. Paragraphs 5.2.6 to 5.2.9 below discuss various data sources in detail. 5.2.6 Reporting systems. Safety reporting programmes form the most classic source of safety information. Examples include air safety reports, mandatory occurrence reports and voluntary confidential safety reports. These programmes can be mandatory, voluntary, confidential and, in some cases, anonymous. Successful reporting programmes are built on the principle of an open reporting culture, where the focus is on safety improvement and not on the assignment of blame. The content of a safety report typically consists of a narrative and various descriptors for classifying the event. Managing a large quantity of reports and distilling useful information from them usually requires a tailored software application. An in-depth study of training-related issues may require an analysis of the narrative parts of the reports, which makes the task more challenging. A functional and effective reporting system is a rich source of information, highlighting: a) operational threats and their approximate frequencies and characteristics; b) specificities of routes, destinations and other operational factors; c) capability of the crew to cope with various real-life situations; and d) errors experienced in operations. Note.— The most effective reporting systems are considered to be confidential and non-punitive to ensure honest, uninhibited reporting. 5.2.7 Flight data analysis (FDA) 5.2.7.1 Flight data analysis is a powerful data collection tool that allows quick access to the results. A limitation is that FDA can only detect pre-defined events based on predetermined technical cues. For example, FDA detects unstable approaches, as the stable approach criteria can be pre-programmed as a defined set of quantitative parameters. However, lateral or vertical navigation errors, e.g. “altitude busts”, cannot be detected as the specifically cleared routes and altitudes vary throughout a flight and therefore cannot be pre-defined. Prevailing environmental conditions (e.g. runway condition or weather) or communications (e.g. intra-cockpit or with ATC) cannot be recorded on current equipment. In summary, FDA information is useful for examining what has occurred in the operation, but not why an event occurred or how the situation was managed after the event did occur. However, FDA can be very powerful in highlighting important operational trends, for example: a) the rate of unstable approaches and corresponding rate of resultant go-arounds versus landings; b) the frequency of some threats and events, e.g. ACAS alerts, rejected take-offs; Part I. Evidence-based training development and programme outline Chapter 5. Implementation of the enhanced EBT programme I-5-3 c) operation and route specificities, including those of destinations, and other operational factors; and d) issues that relate directly to training, e.g. hard landings or rotation technique. 5.2.7.2 FDA is most effective as a trending tool to measure improvement or degradation in operational performance in terms of the risk events defined in the specific FDA programme. From the trends, adjustments can be made in the training programme to mitigate the risk shown by the FDA analysis. As the trending continues, the effectiveness of the adjustments can be measured and validated in a quality loop process. 5.2.7.3 There are several ways to further enhance the use of FDA for the operator. One method is to share data with other operators in existing data sharing groups enabling ‘lessons learnt’ to be transferred across their membership. Another way is by benchmarking the flight data analysis risk events with other operators using the same software with the same event set. The process can be anonymous while providing further insight into training needs. 5.2.8 Flight deck observation 5.2.8.1 Flight deck observation is intended to mean monitoring of normal operations by an observer, such as LOSA and other similar methods. The philosophy is a non-intrusive observation of the flight crew activity. The focus is on threats and errors and on their management. The results are not correlated to the individual pilots but are interpreted at the level of the whole operation. LOSA is performed on a time-limited (snapshot) basis but other variations of normal operations monitoring can occur on a more continuous basis. 5.2.8.2 The power of flight deck observation is in its capability to combine the advantages of safety reporting systems and flight data analysis. All threats and errors seen by the observer are captured – as opposed to only the ones that the pilot elects to report. Also, and very importantly, all contextual factors (e.g. weather, time pressure, etc.) are captured, and the “whys and hows” missed by FDA are also observed. The principal disadvantage is a relatively high human resource requirement. 5.2.8.3 For the purpose of training enhancement, flight deck observation may produce the single most valuable source of information. 5.2.9 Participation in data sharing groups 5.2.9.1 There are opportunities to share relevant operational and training data between operators. The relevance of data from other operators depends on the similarity of aircraft types, destinations, training programmes and other factors. While some of such data may be valuable, care must be taken not to drive the training programme too extensively on the basis of such external data. 5.2.9.2 Participation in data sharing groups may yield significant benefits to an operator’s training programme when planning the launch of new operations such as additional routes, aircraft types, destinations, in terms of training needs, hazard identification and threat and error management. 5.2.9.3 Aircraft manufacturers share information on fleet-wide trends and individual events of concern. Such information may be very useful to the operators of the aircraft type/family in question. Training and operational conferences organized by the manufacturers represent an important opportunity to access such data. I-5-4 Manual of Evidence-based Training 5.3 COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF TRAINING DATA 5.3.1 Training metrics. The “inner loop” within the training function is a valuable source of data. Taking full advantage of such data requires robust and well-calibrated training metrics. Typical metrics include: a) differences in success rates between aircraft types and training topics; b) distribution of errors for various training scenarios and aircraft types; c) skill retention capability versus skill type; d) the trainee’s feedback, which provides a different perspective as to the quality and effectiveness of the training product; and e) instructor tracking system: this system is important to measure the effectiveness of the instructor calibration process. However, it is essential to impress that the purpose of this system is not to spy on instructors or to pressure individuals to change their grading. 5.3.2 Training metrics are an invaluable component in supporting an EBT training programme but they must be placed in the context of operational data, because only the latter can justify the importance of a specific skill within the real operation. 5.4 INTEGRATION OF ANALYSIS 5.4.1 Any data system used has its own strengths, weaknesses and bias. In order to overcome shortcomings of individual data analysis, whether it is training data related to FDA, flight deck monitoring or safety reporting systems, analysis methods should be used in an integrated manner. For example, FDA could well identify problems without providing the reason as to why they have occurred while flight deck monitoring and/or a confidential reporting system could well shed light on the root causes and help define the most effective remedies. 5.4.2 With the exception of training data, all relevant data usually resides within the safety department, as does the expertise for analysis. Collecting all the necessary operational data and analysing it in combination with training data requires a close liaison between the safety and the training departments. 5.5 PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT 5.5.1 Enhanced EBT programme development requires the determination of critical training events, the development of training scenarios and the definition of appropriate flight crew performance criteria when managing these events and scenarios. 5.5.2 In addition to the baseline EBT programme (see Appendices 2 to 7 to Part II), the information and data used to create the training scenarios should be derived according to the principles laid out in 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4. 5.5.3 One method to perform the development tasks is to abide by the following key stages: a) completion of the steps required in paragraph 4.1; b) identification of threats and errors to be considered in a risk and training analysis; Part I. Evidence-based training development and programme outline Chapter 5. Implementation of the enhanced EBT programme I-5-5 c) execution of a risk and training analysis, as described in the Data Report for Evidence-based Training; d) development of the training guidance: this can include all threats and errors listed in the risk and training analysis; for each training manoeuvre or scenario, measurable performance criteria should be defined; each training manoeuvre and scenario should have appended to it the competencies considered most critical to its management; and e) definition of the enhanced EBT programme: this includes the outline guidance for the training programmes and the assessment of trainee performance, in addition to information for instructors conducting the training; it is assumed that the training and assessment described will be conducted in an FSTD qualified to ICAO Level VII according to the Manual of Criteria for the Qualification of Flight Simulation Training Devices (Doc 9625), Volume I — Aeroplanes. 5.5.4 Each periodic EBT module should consist of a session or sessions in a suitably qualified FSTD. Each module should normally contain the three phases described in Chapter 3 of this Part, paragraph 3.8.1. 5.5.5 On completion of programme implementation, all available measurement and tracking tools should continue to be utilized to chart enhancements and degradations in performance and the deployment of skill. These tools also can be utilized to facilitate further programme development and customization. 5.5.6 Documentation and records. Wherever possible, existing record-keeping processes should be utilized and enhanced to provide for effective monitoring of programme effectiveness. 5.5.7 Guidance for regulatory oversight. Guidance for the CAA oversight is contained in Chapter 2 of Part II. ______________________ Chapter 6 PILOTS AND INSTRUCTORS 6.1 PILOTS 6.1.1 Pilots undergoing assessment and training as part of an EBT programme should understand the means by which they will be assessed and trained. 6.1.2 Prior to the implementation of an EBT programme all pilots should be fully briefed and provided with information on the following: a) competencies and related behaviour indicators; b) purpose of each phase of EBT (see Chapter 3 of this Part, 3.8.1); c) assessment methods and performance criteria; and d) operator or ATO grading system. 6.2 INSTRUCTORS — GENERAL Competency-based training programmes, such as EBT and ab-initio MPL courses, are highly dependent upon the analytical and assessment skills of the instructor cadre. Furthermore, it is important that only those individuals who possess a good understanding of the learning process and how to positively influence human behaviour are considered for instructor positions. Prospective instructors should be selected, trained and qualified in accordance with the provisions in Chapter 6, paragraph 6.1.2 of the Procedures for Air Navigation Services – Training (Doc 9868)1. 6.3 INSTRUCTORS — EBT 6.3.1 Instructors conducting EBT should be knowledgeable about the competencies contained in Appendix 1 to Part II, in order to enable them to make effective assessments, provide guidance to flight crew members to improve performance and make recommendations for additional training where necessary. 6.3.2 Instructors should undergo suitable training in order to adapt to the needs of training within an EBT programme. Training should provide the framework for existing instructors to develop their competence to undertake EBT training and assessment. 1 As outlined in Amendment 2 to PANS-TRG. I-6-1 I-6-2 Manual of Evidence-based Training 6.3.3 The training programmes for the instructor role should focus on development of competence in the following specific areas: a) the competencies contained in Appendix 1 to Part II, in particular the measuring of behaviours observed according to the defined grading system used by the operator or ATO; b) in accordance with the assessment and grading system of the operator or training organization, making assessments by observing behaviours; gathering objective evidence regarding the behavioural indicators in Appendix 1 to Part II; c) correlating between observed behaviour and potential outcome in training situations; d) recognizing and highlighting good performance; e) determining root causes for deviations below the standards of performance; and f) identifying situations that could result in unacceptable reductions in safety margins. 6.3.4 Prior to conducting instruction and assessment within an EBT programme, all instructors should successfully complete a formal competency assessment. The competency assessment should be made during a practical training session supervised by a person nominated by the operator or the ATO. 6.3.5 All instructors should receive annual refresher training, and be re-assessed in the competencies specified in 6.3.3 every three years. ______________________ Chapter 7 CONDUCT OF EBT 7.1 GENERAL Competency-based training is the approach used to deliver the content of EBT programmes. The facilitation technique (see Glossary) is the primary technique that should be used for competency-based training. Other techniques, such as showing and telling, complement facilitation if the trainees do not have the knowledge and/or experience to conduct the required task. 7.2 PREPARATION 7.2.1 Creation of lesson plans. Lesson plans should be created in accordance with the respective appendix (see Appendices 2 to 7 to Part II). 7.2.2 Standardization of instructors. Before delivering instruction or conducting assessment within the EBT programme all instructors should be trained and standardized in accordance with the guidance contained in Chapter 6 of this Part. 7.2.3 Information to pilots. Prior to the implementation of an EBT programme all pilots should be made familiar with the EBT principles, philosophy, phases of the training programme and the means by which they will be assessed and trained (see Chapter 6, paragraph 6.1). 7.3 BRIEFING 7.3.1 Session briefing. Briefings should contain at least the elements set out below. 7.3.1.1 Objectives: a) demonstrate at least the minimum required standard in all the competencies; b) enhance handling skills; and c) enhance the trainee’s ability to prevent, mitigate and manage most relevant threats and errors. 7.3.1.2 Structure of the session: a) evaluation phase; b) manoeuvres training phase; and c) scenario-based training phase. I-7-1 I-7-2 Manual of Evidence-based Training Note.— In certain circumstances the CAA may consider that the evaluation phase is conducted in a different sequence to the one advocated in this manual. This is intended to enable coherence with certain existing AQP programmes. 7.4 EVALUATION PHASE 7.4.1 Qualified and authorized instructors should be assigned to carry out assessments to determine that all required performance standards have been satisfactorily achieved. 7.4.2 The purpose of the evaluation phase is to: a) observe and assess flight crew competency; b) collect data to further develop and validate the effectiveness of the training system; and

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