Human Organizations and System Lecture Notes PDF

USMANU DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITH HEALTH MBBS/BDS PROGRAMME UG II 2023/2024 SESSION Human Organizations and System By Prof. A.U Ka’oje  Lecture Out...

USMANU DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITH HEALTH MBBS/BDS PROGRAMME UG II 2023/2024 SESSION Human Organizations and System By Prof. A.U Ka’oje  Lecture Outline Introduction/Definition Description of human orgnizations: society Components of society; Population Culture Human organization and Health 2 Learning Objective At the end of the lecture, student should be able to: Understand human organizations Know the components human organizations Understand the role of human organization on health and Disease 3 Introduction Humans are organized into group or groups Human beings everywhere are members of a group or groups. A man who can live without society, said Aristotle, is either a beast or God. 4  Society The term ‘society’ is derived from a Latin word ‘’socius’’ which means association, togetherness, companionship, or simply group life refers to a relatively large group or collection of people who share more or less common and distinct culture, occupying a certain geographical locality, with the feeling of identity or belongingness, having all the necessary social arrangements to sustain itself. Definition by Calhoun et al (1994): an autonomous group of people who inhabit a common territory, have a common culture (shared set of values, beliefs, customs) and are linked to one another through routinized social interactions and interdependent statuses and roles. 5  Society……… People who live in a definable community and who share a culture (Strayer, 2015) Societies may be conceptualized as having different levels: at global, continental, regional, country and and ethic group levels The type of society we live determines many aspects of our live, such as where we live/grow up, how we are influenced, who we meet, what we do, and how we experience life. No two societies are the same; characterized by their shared values, beliefs and cultures; Character of society is dynamic; it changes over time and place. 6  Basic features of society ØOutstanding feature of society is a system - a system of social relationships between individuals. Importance of society is that it controls and regulates the behaviour of the individual both by law and customs. exert pressure on the individual to conform to its norms Public health is an integral part of the social system. It is influenced by society, and society by public health. 7  Basic features of society……….. Ø A society is usually a relatively large grouping of people in terms of size Ø Members share common and distinct culture. most important thing about a society Ø A society also has a definite, limited space or territory People are locatable in a definite geographical area and consider that area as their own Ø People who make up a society have the feeling of identity and belongingness. emanates from the routinized pattern of social interaction that exists among the people and the various groups 8 Ø Members of society are considered to have a common origin and common historical experience. They feel that they have also common destiny Ø Members may also speak a common mother tongue or a major language that may serve as a national heritage. Ø A society is autonomous and independent in the sense that it has all the necessary social institutions and organizational arrangements to sustain the system. a society is not an island; are interdependent. People interact socially, economically and politically. 9  These features are not exhaustive; may not apply to all societies. Some variations among societies in terms of these basic features due to: Level of a society’s economic and technological development the type of economic or livelihood system a society is engaged 10  Conceptualizing Society at Various Levels In a general sense and at an abstract level as described by Calhoun, et al., (1994), all people of the earth may be considered as a society. Earth is a common territory for the whole world's people All people of the earth share common origin inhabit common planet, have common bio-psychological unity exhibit similar basic interests, desires and fears; and are heading towards common destiny At another level, every continent may be considered as a society, such as European society, African society, the Asian society, the Latin American society, etc. each of these continents share its own territory, historical experiences, shared culture. 11  At a more practical level, each country is regarded as a society. example, people of Nigeria, Ethiopia or Kenya, Japan are considered as a society. Another level of society is that within each country, there may be ethno-linguistically distinct groups of people having a territory that they consider as their own. thus societies in their own right, Hausa-Fulani society, Yoruba, Igbo society, etc Some such society may extend beyond the boundaries of countries, Example, the Hausa in Nigeria and Ghana, or Cameroon 12  The Family Family is a primary unit in all societies; a transfer point of civilization. Defined as a group of biologically related individuals living together and eating from a common kitchen. Families are not constant; differs from household in that all the members of a household may not be blood relations, e.g., servants. hey are ever changing Family units throughout the world are not the same. The family is a bridge between generations and between father and sons. 13  Cultural patterns relating to eating, cleanliness, dress, speech, language, behaviour, and attitudes are all transmitted through the family. As a biological unit - family members share a pool of genes Social unit - share a common physical and social environment. Cultural unit – family reflects the culture of the wider society of which it forms a part and determines the behaviour and attitudes of its members. The family is also an epidemiological unit, and a unit for providing social services as well as comprehensive medical care. 14  Family in Health and Disease Anyone who is concerned with medical practice or community health activities will come to know that family is ultimately the unit with which one has to deal. Family performs many functions; some are relevant to health and health behaviour, and are important from the medical-sociology point of view. Child rearing: The way child rearing is carried out differs significantly from society to society, and from time to time, depends on factors: resources, level of knowledge, state of technology and system of values. 15  It is important to note that patterns of child care (e.g., feeding, nutrition, hygiene, sleep, clothing, discipline, habit training) are passed on from one generation to another. In many societies, child care is socially determined by tradition. Ø Ideas people have about nutrition, exercise, sleep and clothing have a large social component which varies from society to society. For instance, child care is "on demand" schedule at mother's breast while in some it is rigid and confined to a set of rules. Problem of overcrowding – may not be inadequate room space, in some societies, it’s sleeping habits - a pattern of social customs which foster better relations between groups. Communal feeding/eating 16 Ø Teaching the young the values of society and transmitting information, culture, general codes of conduct, by example and precept, in order to make them fit for membership in the wider society. Ø Attitude of society to pregnancy and child-bearing may have an important bearing on the infant deaths, premature and stillbirths, maternal morbidity and mortality. ØIn many societies, women are given financial help, maternity leave facilities, diet and nutritional supplements and decreased puerperium Ø Attitude of the society in regard to individuals who need care and attention varies considerably. ØIn some, there is a great deal of harshness in respect of those who are sufferers. Øexcluded from the full range of benefits. Økind of illness is also of great importance in determining the attitudes of society where the illness arouses fear (e.g., leprosy) 17 Ø Members of a family share a pool of genes and a common environment and together, these decide their susceptibility to disease. § Certain diseases such as haemophilia, colour blindness, diabetes and mental illness are known to run through families. § family is often the playground for such communicable diseases as tuberculosis, common cold, scabies, diphtheria, measles, mumps, rubella, chickenpox, dysentery, diarrhoea, and enteric fever. § known to spread rapidly in families because of the common shared environment § incidence of congenital malformation is higher among offspring of consanguineous as compared with non-consanguineous marriages. 18  Culture Culture is the product of human societies, and man is largely a product of his cultural environment. transmitted from one generation to another through learning processes, formal and informal. Culture plays an important role in human societies. It lays down norms of behaviour and provides mechanisms which secure for an individual his personal and social survival. 19  Culture Culture is defined as "learned behaviour which has been socially acquired". It refers to the total ways of life of the members of a society. includes what they wear, their marriage customs and family life, art, and patterns of work, religious ceremonies, leisure pursuits, and so forth. also includes the material goods they produce: bows and arrows, machines, computers, books, buildings, airplanes, etc. Culture is divided into material and non-material cultures: Material culture consists of any tangible human made objects such as tools, automobiles, buildings, etc. Non- material culture consists of any non-physical aspects like language, belief, ideas, knowledge, attitude, values, etc. 20  Elements of culture Major ones include: Symbols, values, norms, and language Symbols - central components of culture. refers to anything to which people attach meaning and which they use to communicate with others. More specifically, symbols are words, objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent something else rather than themselves 21  Elements of culture……….. Language: specifically defined as a system of verbal and in many cases written symbols with rules about how those symbols can be strung together to convey more complex meanings, Culture encompasses language, and through language, culture is communicated and transmitted. Without language it would be impossible to develop, elaborate and transmit culture to the future generation. 22  Values Essential elements of non-material culture. defined as general, abstract guidelines for our lives, decisions, goals, choices, and actions. A shared ideas of a group or a society as to what is right or wrong, correct or incorrect, desirable or undesirable, acceptable or unacceptable, ethical or unethical, etc., regarding something. Values are shared and are learned in group; can be positive or negative. Positive values - honesty, truth – telling, respect for others, hospitality, helping those in need, etc are. Negative values - include theft, indecency, disrespect, dishonesty, falsehood, frugality. 23  Example of positive value - Hippocratic Oath in medical profession dictates that practitioners should among other things, keep the secrets of patients, provide them whatever help they can, do no harm to patients willingly, etc. Values are dynamic - meaning they change over time; also static - meaning they tend to persist without any significant modification. Values are also diversified - meaning they vary from place to place and culture to culture. Some values are universal - because there is bio-psychological unity among people everywhere and all times. Emanate from the basic similarity of mankind’s origins, nature and desires. Example, dislike for killing people, concepts and practices of disease management, cleanliness, personal hygiene, cosmetics, incest taboo, etc. 24  Norms Essential elements of culture; are detailed and specific rules for specific situations. tell us how to do something, what to do, what not to do, when to do it, why to do it, etc. derived from values - every specific norm, there is a general value that determines its content. Social norms may be divided into two; mores and folkways 25  Mores Mores: important and stronger social norms for existence, safety, well-being and continuity of the society or the group or society. Violation of, and deviation from these kinds of norms, may result in serious reactions form the groups. strongest norms are regarded as the formal laws (written and codified social norms) of a society or a group. other kinds of mores are called conventions - are established rules governing behaviour; they are generally accepted ideals by the society. 26  Folkways Ways of life developed by a group of people. Are detailed and minor instructions, traditions or rules for day-to-day life that help us function effectively and smoothly as members of a group. not enforced by law, but by informal social control. Violating such kinds of norms may not result in a serious punishment unlike violating mores. Less morally binding, yet people have to behave according to accepted standards examples may include table etiquette, dressing rules, walking, talking, etc. Folkways - designed, maintained and enforced by public sentiment, or custom, whereas mores and laws are institutionalized, designed, maintained and enforced by the political authority of the society. 27  Folkways is divided into two: fashion and custom. Fashion: Is a form of behaviour; type of folkways that is socially approved at a given time but subject to periodic change. Custom: Is a folkway or form of social behaviour that, having persisted a long period of time, has become traditional and well established in a society and has received some degree of formal recognition. Custom is a pattern of action shared by most or all members of a society. Habit is a personality trait, where as the custom is a group trait. 28  Culture Variability refers to the diversity of cultures across societies and places. As there are different societies, there are different cultures. Values and norms of behaviour vary widely from culture to culture often contrasting in radical ways. For example, Jews do not eat pork, while Hindus eat pork but avoid beef. Cultural diversity or variability can be both between societies and within societies. Nigeria and Ghana, have a great cultural diversities between the two societies. 29  Cultural variability between societies may result in divergent health and disease conditions. Example, variations in nutritional habits are closely linked to the types of diseases. Prevalence of tapeworm among raw-meat eating people. the concept of subculture is used to denote the variability of culture within a certain society. Subculture is a distinctive culture that is shared by a group within a society. Examples: distinctive culture of university students, street children and prostitutes, the culture of medical professionals, etc. 30  Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism and Culture Shock Ethnocentrism We often tend to judge other cultures by comparison with our own. not logically possible and proper to underestimate or overestimate or judge other cultures on the basis of one's cultural standard. Ethnocentrism, in general, is an attitude of taking one's own culture and ways of life as the best and the center of all and on the other hand, regarding other ethnic groups and cultures as inferior, bad, full of errors, etc. It is the tendency to apply one's own cultural values in judging the behaviour and beliefs of people raised in other cultures. 31  Cultural Relativism Every society has its own culture, which is more or less unique. Every culture contains its own unique pattern of behaviour which may seem alien to people from other cultural backgrounds. Cultural relativism may be regarded as the opposite of ethnocentrism. Cultural relativism describes a situation where there is an attitude of respect for cultural differences rather than condemning other people's culture as uncivilized or backward (Stockard, 1997). 32  Respect for cultural differences involves: Ø Appreciating cultural diversity Ø Accepting and respecting other cultures Ø Trying to understand every culture and its elements in terms of its own context and logic Ø Knowing that a person's own culture is only one among many; and Ø Recognizing that what is immoral, ethical, acceptable, etc, in one culture may not be so in another culture. 33  Culture shock Culture shock is the psychological and social maladjustment at micro or macro level that is experienced for the first time when people encounter new cultural elements such as new things, new ideas, new concepts, seemingly strange beliefs and practices. No person is protected from culture shock. individuals vary in their capacity to adapt and overcome the influence of culture shock. Highly ethnocentric (those who belief in superiority of their own ethnic group) people are exposed widely to culture shock. On the other hand, cultural relativists may find it easy to adapt to new situations and overcome culture shock (Henslin and Nelson, 1995). 34  Acculturation Acculturation means '·culture contact. When there is contact between two people with different types of culture, there is diffusion of culture both ways. Culture contact takes place through: Trade and commerce Industrialization Propagation of religion Education; and Conquest The British brought their culture into Nigeria through conquest. 35  Acculturation…….. Culture contact has both good and bad aspects. The introduction of scientific medicine is through culture contact. The changes in food habits of people is brought about through culture contact; The widespread use of tobacco all over the world is because of culture contact. Radio, television, the cinema have been important factors in shaping the cultural- behaviour patterns of people. 36  Cultural Factors in Health and Disease All people, whether rural or urban, have their own beliefs and practices concerning health and disease. It is now widely recognized that cultural factors are deeply involved in all the affairs of man, including health and sickness. Every culture has its own customs, some of which have a profound influence on the incidence of disease. Not all customs and beliefs are bad. 37  It is now fairly established that cultural factors are deeply involved in matters of: Personal hygiene Nutrition Immunization Seeking early medical care Family planning Child rearing Disposal of refuse and excreta Outlook on health and disease, etc. 38  Cultural Factors in Health and Disease Many of these have stood in the way of implementing health programmes especially where a change of behaviour was involved. A knowledge of the local customs and beliefs is therefore very important for improving the health status of mothers and children Some of these factors include: Ø Concept of aetiology and cure – superstition, physical – exposure to sun, etc ØEnvironmental sanitation – open defaecation, waste disposal, water source (well, river), housing 39  Cultural Factors in Health and Disease ØFood habits - food is a subject of widespread customs, habits and beliefs; Ø meat (pork vs. beaf), alcohol consumption, communal eating, men eating before female, etc ØMother and child health - surrounded by a wide range of customs and beliefs all over the world. § various customs in the field of MCH have been classified as good, bad, unimportant and uncertain § Good - prolonged breast-feeding, sexual abstinence until baby is 2 or above years, exposure to sun are good customs etc. § Bad - some foods (e.g., eggs, meat, fish, milk, leafy vegetables) are forbidden during pregnancy – food taboos 40 ØBad - the child is not put to the breast during the first 3 days of birth because of the belief that colostrum might be harmful ØCircumcision : This is a prevalent custom among Muslims, which has a religious sanction. ØWearing shoes : The transmission of hook-worm disease is associated with bare feet. Many villagers in South India do not wear shoes 41  Community A major functioning unit of society. Individual belongs to the broader society through his family and community. Various definitions of community are given in dictionaries and other publications. Some imply homogenity, e.g., people living in a particular place or region and usually linked by common interests or a group of individuals and families living together in a defined geographic area, usually comprising a village, town or city. Definition accepted by WHO Expert Committee is - A community is a social group determined by geographical boundaries and/or common values and interests. Its members know and interact with each other. It functions within a particular social structure (pattern of inter-relations between persons), and exhibits and creates certain norms, values, and social institutions 42  It is the place where our home is located; children are educated; sick people are treated and individual basic needs and desires are met. Characteristics of community are: the community is a contiguous geographic area it is composed of people living together people cooperate to satisfy their basic needs there are common organizations, e.g., markets, schools, stores, banks, hospitals 43