Human Organizations and Systems - UG II

Human Organizations and System

• This is a course on human organizations and systems
• The course is for UG II students at Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
• The course is part of the MBBS/BDS program
• The session is 2023/2024

Lecture Outline

• Introduction/Definition
• Description of human organizations: society
• Components of society:
  • Population
  • Culture
  • Human organization and health

Learning Objectives

• Understand human organizations
• Know the components of human organizations
• Understand the role of human organization on health and Disease

Introduction

• Humans are organized into groups
• Everyone is a member of a group or groups
• Aristotle said a man who can live without society is either a beast or God

Society

• The term 'society' comes from the Latin word "socius" which means association, togetherness, companionship, or group life
• A relatively large group of people who share a culture, live in a geographical location, and have a feeling of belonging and identity
• Definition: an autonomous group of people who inhabit a common territory, share a common culture, and are linked through routinized social interactions and interdependent statuses and roles.
• People who live in a definable community and share a culture
• Societies can be global, continental, regional, country, or ethnic group
• No two societies are the same; they are characterized by shared values, beliefs, and cultures. The character of society is dynamic; it changes over time and place

Basic Features of Society

• Society is a system of social relationships between individuals
• Society controls and regulates individual behavior through laws and customs
• Society exerts pressure on individuals to conform to its norms
• Public health is an integral part of the social system and influenced by society and vice-versa
• Society is usually a relatively large grouping of people, who share a common and distinct culture
• It has a definitive, limited space or territory
• Members of society have a feeling of belonging and identity

Basic Features of Society (continued)

• Members of society are considered to have a common origin and historical experience
• Members may share a common mother tongue
• A society is autonomous and independent, with necessary social institutions to maintain itself
• People interact socially, economically, and politically
• These features are not exhaustive; they may not apply to all societies—some variations are due to the level of a society's economic and technological advancement
• The type of economic or livelihood system the society is engaged in

Conceptualizing Society at Various Levels

• All people of the earth may be viewed as one society.
• All people share a common origin, planet, and bio-psychological unity and similar desires, feelings, and fears; and heading towards a common destiny.
• Continents can also be considered as societies: European, African, Asian, Latin American societies
• Each continent has its own territory, history, shared culture.
• Countries within those regions are also considered a society, like Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya or Japan.

Conceptualizing Society at Various Levels (continued)

• Distinct groups within a nation may also have ethnic and linguistic distinctions, and consider a territory as their own, such as Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo societies
• Some societies may extend beyond national boundaries

The Family

• The family is a primary unit found in all societies; it is a transfer point of civilization
• A group of biologically related people who live together and eat from a common kitchen
• Families are not constant The roles, members, and structures change over time depending on need, available resources, and values.
• Families are a bridge between generations and between father and sons
• Cultural patterns—eating habits, cleanliness, speech, behavior, and attitudes—are passed down through families
• Family members share a common gene pool
• Families share a shared environment and the social environment

The Family (continued).

• The family is an epidemiological unit, involved in social services and medical care
• Anyone associated with medical practice or community health must understand that the family and their actions are a primary unit for intervention

Family in Health and Disease

• Family is the core unit for medical practice and community health activities
• Families have relevant functions for health and behavior, from a medical-sociological standpoint
• Child-rearing practices vary by society and over time and are impacted by resources, knowledge, technology, and values

Family in Health and Disease (continued)

• Child-care patterns—feeding, nutrition, hygiene, sleep, training—are passed down from one generation to another
• Child care is dependent on societal norms and traditions
• How people think about nutrition, exercise, sleep, and clothing varies from one society to another

Family in Health and Disease (continued)

• Overcrowding in some societies is not necessarily due to inadequate space; rather, it's due to social customs to foster better relationships between groups.
• Communal eating or feeding is a common practice.
• Teaching values, information, and codes of conduct to the younger generation is essential to prepare them for society
• Attitudes of societies toward pregnancy and childbirth affect infant deaths, premature births, maternal morbidity and mortality.
• Some societies provide financial aid, maternity leave, diet, and nutritional supplements for women.
• Attitudes about care for sick and suffering members of society vary.
• Different illnesses prompt various responses

Family in Health and Disease (continued)

• Family members share genes and a common environment, which determine their risk of illness
• Families can be a source for spreading contagious illness, like tuberculosis, the common cold, scabies, diphtheria

Family in Health and Disease (continued)

• The incidence of congenital abnormalities may be higher in families where there is close biological relationship
• In consanguineous marriages

Culture

• Culture is the product of human societies, and individuals are heavily influenced by their cultural environment
• It is transmitted between generations through formal and informal learning processes
• Culture plays a vital role in societies, establishing norms of behavior and securing personal and social survival,
• Culture is defined as learned behaviors that are socially acquired
• It encompasses total ways of life, including what people wear, marriage customs, family life, art, work patterns, religious ceremonies, and leisure pursuits
• Includes material goods: bows and arrows, machines, computers, books, buildings, and airplanes
• Culture is divided into material and non-material cultures
• Material culture encompasses tangible human-made objects like tools, automobiles, buildings and other physical items
• Non-material culture comprises non-physical aspects such as language, beliefs, ideas, knowledge, attitudes, values, etc

Elements of Culture (continued)

• Symbols are central components of culture and refer to anything that people attach meaning to and use in communication
• Language encompasses a system of verbal and often written symbols, with rules on their usage to convey complex meanings
• Language allows the transmission and sharing of culture

Elements of Culture (continued).

• Values are general guidelines for human life, decisions, goals, choices, and behaviors. – Values are shared ideas of a group or society as to what is right, wrong, correct, incorrect, desirable, undesirable, acceptable or unacceptable
• Values are either positive or negative
• Examples include honesty, truth, respect for others, hospitality, helping those in need. (Positive), and theft, indecency, lack of respect, dishonesty (Negative).
• Values are dynamic, changing over time; they are also static, persisting with little modification

Elements of Culture (continued).

• Some values are universal due to a shared bio-psychological unity across people and time
• Examples are the avoidance of killing people, cleanliness, hygiene
• The Hippocratic Oath exemplifies a set of positive values in medical practice

Norms

• Norms are detailed and specific rules for particular situations
• They tell us what to do, what not to do, and how to do it, and why
• Norms are derived from values
• Social norms are categorized into mores and folkways

Mores

• Mores are strong social norms crucial for society's existence, safety, and well-being
• Violations of mores cause strong reactions from groups.
• Mores often include formal laws (codified social norms) and conventions.
• Conventions are rules that guide social behavior, generally accepted and ideal

Folkways

• Folkways are everyday practices, rules, and instructions that help groups function
• They are not laws but guided by informal social controls
• Violations don’t have strong penalties unlike violating mores.
• Folkways include customs like table etiquette, dressing rules, walking, and talking
• Folkways are often determined by public sentiment or custom

Culture Variability

• Different cultures have their own norms and values
• Examples include the dietary customs of Jews and Hindus
• Cultural diversity exists between and within societies
• Cultural differences may result in divergent health and illness conditions

Acculturation

• Acculturation refers to the contact of two different cultures. When cultures interact, their values and customs are diffused.
• Contact may occur through trade, commerce, industrialization, religion, education, and conquest.
• There are good and bad aspects of culture contact, such as the introduction scientific medicine, changing food habits, and the widespread of tobacco. Media plays a role in shaping cultural behaviors

Cultural Factors in Health and Disease

• All people, regardless of their location, have their beliefs and behaviors concerning health and illness.
• Cultural beliefs and practices play a significant role in health and disease conditions.
• Not all customs or beliefs are bad

Cultural Factors in Health and Disease (continued)

• Cultural factors affect matters like personal hygiene, nutrition, immunization, early medical care, and family planning, along with child rearing, disposal of waste, and outlook on health
• Local customs and beliefs influence the implementation of public health programs, influencing behavior change

Cultural Factors in Health and Disease (continued)

• Food habits, beliefs, and customs related to food, are a major aspect of culture that influence health conditions— such as meat consumption (pork versus beef), alcohol consumption, common eating practices, and gender roles in eating

Cultural Factors in Health and Disease (continued)

• Practices surrounding child and mother health are examples of the impact of culture on health.
• Examples include social customs surrounding breast-feeding, sexual abstinence, exposure to sunlight, prohibitions on specific foods during pregnancy.
• Customs are not always uniform and vary across cultures

Cultural Factors in Health and Disease (continued)

• Cultural practices, like not nursing children, are tied to belief systems, like when colostrum might be harmful.
• Circumcision and food avoidance are examples related to religion or beliefs.
• Hookworm disease and the practice of not wearing shoes is an example of disease transmission and cultural practices.

Community

• The community is a crucial unit in society
• Individuals' connection to society is through their family and community.
• Communities are commonly seen as groups of people inhabiting a particular location and having common interests.
• A community is a social group that is defined by geographic boundaries or shared values/interests
• Members interact with each other and function within a structure. This can lead to common norms, values, and social institutions
• The community impacts daily life by providing homes, educating children, and meeting basic human needs

Community (continued)

• A community is a contiguous geographic area; people live together, cooperate to fulfill basic needs, and have common organizations like markets, schools, stores, banks, and hospitals.