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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REVIEW SLIDES- MIDTERM EXAMINATION Genes and Chromosomes: The Code of Life Humans begin life simply Gametes from male and female join...
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REVIEW SLIDES- MIDTERM EXAMINATION Genes and Chromosomes: The Code of Life Humans begin life simply Gametes from male and female join ovum and sperm Fused gametes create a zygote Resulting combination of their genetic instructions - over 2 billion chemically coded messages - is sufficient to begin creation of a human Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 2.1 - Contents of a Single Human Cell Genes Specific DNA sequences Chromosomes Rod-shaped DNA portions in 23 pairs Contain genetic blueprint for individuals Replicate through mitosis Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Multiple Births Different kinds of multiple births Monozygotic Dizygotic Causes of multiple births Fertility drugs Racial, ethnic, and national differences Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Mixing and Matching of Genes Basics of genetics Dominant traits: expressed traits Recessive traits: unexpressed traits Genotype: combination of genetic material present but outwardly invisible Phenotype: is the observable trait, the trait that is actually seen. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Role of the Environment in Determining the Expression of Genes: From Genotype and Phenotype A given behavior is not caused solely by genetic factors; nor is it caused solely by environmental forces Multifactorial transmission- diseases and health traits that involve multiple genes and complex patterns of inheritance Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 2.3 - Establishing the Sex of the Child Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Table 2.1 - Genetics and Selected Disorders and Traits Behavioral Trait Current Beliefs about Genetic Basis Huntington gene localized to the terminal portion Huntington’s disease of the short arm of chromosome 4. Obsessive-Compulsive Several potentially relevant genes have been Disorder (OCD) identified but additional research is needed to verify. Fragile X mental retardation Two genes identified. Early onset (familial) Three distinct genes identified. Most cases caused Alzheimer’s disease by single-gene mutation on chromosomes 21, 14, and 1. Attention deficit Evidence in some studies has linked ADHD with the hyperactivity disorder dopamine D4 and D5 genes, but the complexity of (ADHD) the disease makes it difficult to identify an specific gene beyond reasonable doubt. Alcoholism Research suggests that genes which affect the activity of neurotransmitters serotonin and GABA likely are involved in risk for alcoholism. There is no agreement, but links to chromosomes 1, Schizophrenia 5, 6, 10, 13, 15, and 22 have been reported. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Inherited and Genetic Disorders: When Development Deviates from the Norm Disorders include: Down Syndrome Fragile X Syndrome Sickle-cell disease Causes Genetics Spontaneous mutation Environmental insult Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Inherited and Genetic Disorders: When Development Deviates from the Norm Down Syndrome A disorder produced by the presence of an extra chromosome on the 21st pairs. Also referred to as mongolism. Most frequent cause of mental retardation. Occurs in about 1 out of 500 births Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Inherited and Genetic Disorders: When Development Deviates from the Norm Fragile X syndrome an inherited condition characterized by an X chromosome that is abnormally susceptible to damage, especially by folic acid deficiency. Affected individuals tend to have limited intellectual functions. Sickle- cell anemia A blood disorder that gets its name from the shape of the red blood cells in those who have it. Symptoms include poor appetite, stunted growth, swollen stomach, and yellowish eyes. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Inherited and Genetic Disorders: When Development Deviates from the Norm Fragile X syndrome an inherited condition characterized by an X chromosome that is abnormally susceptible to damage, especially by folic acid deficiency. Affected individuals tend to have limited intellectual functions. Sickle- cell anemia A blood disorder that gets its name from the shape of the red blood cells in those who have it. Symptoms include poor appetite, stunted growth, swollen stomach, and yellowish eyes. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Personality: Born to Be Outgoing? Two of the “Big Five” personality traits are linked to genetic factors: Neuroticism Extroversion Contentiousness Openness Agreeableness Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. “Big Five” personality traits Neuroticism- degree of emotional stability an individual characteristically displays Extroversion- degree to which a person seeks to be with others, to behave in outgoing manner and generally to be sociable Contentiousness- high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. Openness- characteristics such as imagination and insight, and those high in this trait also tend to have a broad range of interests. Agreeableness- attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors. Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. A Fundamental Principle Within the debate about the relative influence of nature and nurture on behavior: Role of genetics is often to produce a tendency toward a future course of development Role of environment affects when and whether a certain behavioral characteristic will actually be displayed Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Can Genes Influence the Environment? Three ways in which a child's genetic predisposition may influence her or his environment: Active- focus on those aspects of environment that are most connected with their genetically determined abilities. An active child will gravitate toward sports Passive- less direct, a sports oriented parent who has genes that promote good physical coordination may provide many opportunities for a child to play sports Evocative- an infants demanding behavior may cause parents to be more attentive to the infant’s needs Copyright © 2017, 2014, 2011, Pearson Education Inc. All Rights Reserved. Conception the beginning of life, occurs when the genetic material of the sperm and egg unite to form a single-celled zygote Midway through the menstrual cycle, every 28 days or so, females ovulate: an ovum (egg cell) ripens, leaves the ovary, and begins its journey through the fallopian tube to the uterus It takes only one sperm to fertilize the ovum, each sperm and ovum contain all the genetic data necessary to produce a new human. Prenatal Stages Germinal (fertilization to 2 weeks) Embryonic (2 weeks to 8 weeks) Fetal (8 weeks to birth) Germinal Stage Fertilization → 2 weeks Shortest stage Fertilized egg now called a blastocyst Travels to and implants in the uterus Characterized by methodical cell division With division comes cell specialization Events on GERMINAL STAGE Events on Embryonic Stage Embryonic Stage 2 weeks → 8 weeks Organism firmly secures to uterus and called an embryo Also called organogenesis Development of major organs and basic anatomy Three distinct layers that ultimately form different set of structures Ectoderm: forms skin, hair, teeth, sense organ, brain, spinal cord Endoderm: inner layer forms digestive system, liver, pancreas, respiratory system Mesoderm: forms muscles, bones, blood, circulatory system Fetal Stage 8 weeks → Birth Formally starts when differentiation of major organs has occurred Organism now called a fetus Characterized by rapid development – Organs become more differentiated and begin working – Interconnections between body parts become more complex and integrated – Brain becomes more sophisticated Events on FETAL STAGE Pregnancy Problems Infertility: the inability to conceive after 12 to 18 months of trying to become pregnant. Maternal infertility influenced by age: hormone imbalance, damaged fallopian tubes or uterus, stress, abuse of alcohol or drugs Paternal infertility influenced by illicit drugs, tobacco, STDs Pregnancy Problems Abortion in which a mother voluntarily chooses to terminate pregnancy Miscarriage (Spontaneous Abortion) occurs when pregnancy ends before the developing child is able to survive outside the mother’s womb. The embryo detaches from the wall of the uterus and is expelled. Alternative Birthing Procedures Lamaze birthing techniques weekly training in which they learn exercise that help them relax various parts of body on command, coach; uses breathing technique and relaxation training Bradley Method husband coach childbirth, involve no medication and medical intervention, as natural as possible Alternative Birthing Procedures Hypnobirthing self-hypnosis; produce a state of focused concentration in which mother relaxes her body focusing inward Water birthing is a practice in which a woman enters a pool of warm water to give birth. Teratogen any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a developing fetus (for example, by causing deformities, blindness, brain damage, or even death). Effects of Teratogens 1. Critical period. The effects of a teratogenic agent are worst during the critical period when an organ system grows most rapid. 2. Dosage and duration. The greater the level of exposure and the longer the exposure to a teratogen, the more likely it is that serious damage will occur. 3. Genetic makeup. Susceptibility to harm is influenced by the unborn child’s and by the mother’s genetic makeup. 4. Environment. The effects of a teratogen depend on the quality of both the prenatal and the postnatal environments. Pregnancy Problems Abortion in which a mother voluntarily chooses to terminate pregnancy Miscarriage (Spontaneous Abortion) occurs when pregnancy ends before the developing child is able to survive outside the mother’s womb. The embryo detaches from the wall of the uterus and is expelled. Pregnancy Problems Infertility: the inability to conceive after 12 to 18 months of trying to become pregnant. Maternal infertility influenced by age: hormone imbalance, damaged fallopian tubes or uterus, stress, abuse of alcohol or drugs Paternal infertility influenced by illicit drugs, tobacco, STDs Assisted reproductive Technologies (ARTs) medical techniques used to increase fertility Artificial insemination involves injecting sperm, either from a woman’s partner or from a donor, into her uterus In vitro fertilization (IVF) several eggs are removed from a woman’s ovary and manually combined with sperm in a laboratory dish before being returned to a woman’s uterus in hopes that one egg will implant on the wall of the uterus. Mother’s Use of Tobacco ❑Tobacco Women who smoke experience higher rates of miscarriage than nonsmokers, and babies born to mothers who smoke grow more slowly in the womb and are at risk for prematurity, low birth weight, cleft lips (an opening in the top lip), and cleft palates (an opening in the roof of the mouth; FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME ❑. Children with FAS also show signs of central nervous system damage. ❑As newborns, they are likely to display excessive irritability, hyperactivity, seizures, or tremors. ❑Most children with FAS score well below average on IQ tests throughout childhood and adolescence, and many are mentally retarded Three Stages of Labor ❑ First stage the uterine contractions initially occur around every 8 to 10 minutes and last about 30 seconds; as the contraction increases the cervix fully opens to allow the baby’s head to pass through ❑ Second stage which typically lasts around 90 minutes, the baby’s head emerges further from the mother with each contraction, increasing the size of the vaginal opening ❑ Third stage occurs when the child’s umbilical cord (still attached to the neonate) and the placenta are expelled from the mother. T BIRTH COMPLICATIONS Preterm infants infants who are born prior to 38 weeks after conception (also known as premature infants). Low-birthweight infants infants who weigh less than 2,500 grams (around 5 1/2 pounds) at birth. Small-for-gestational-age infants who, because of delayed fetal growth, weigh 90 percent (or less) of the average weight of infants of the same gestational age. BIRTH COMPLICATIONS Very-low-birthweight infants infants who weigh less than 1,250 grams (around 2.25 pounds) or, regardless of weight, have been in the womb less than 30 weeks. Postmature infants infants still unborn two weeks after the mother’s due date. Stages of Stress Stress: Response to events that threaten or challenge an individual Stressors: events & circumstances that cause threats to well-being. Both pleasant events and unpleasant events can be stressful Long-term, continuous exposure may result in a reduction of body’s ability to deal with stress The Origins of Stress Negative emotions Uncontrollable or unpredictable situations Ambiguous and confusing situations Simultaneous tasks demands Adolescent Stress: Late to Bed, Early to Rise Adolescents go to bed later and get up earlier Sleep deprivation results in: –Lower grades –Depression –Greater difficulty controlling their moods –Greater risk of auto accidents Coping with Stress Problem-focused coping : attempt to manage a stressful problem or situation by directly changing situation to make it less stressful. Emotion-focused coping involves conscious regulation of emotion. Social support coping: aided by presence of social support, assistance and comfort supplied by others. Defensive coping: involves unconscious strategies that distort or deny true nature of the situation. Coping Strategies Seek control over the situation producing the stress Redefine “threat” as “challenge” Find social support Use relaxation techniques Try to maintain a healthy lifestyle Remember - a life without any stress at all would be a dull one Hardiness, Resilience, and Coping Hardiness Personality characteristic associated with lower rate of stress-related illness Resilience Ability to withstand, overcome, and thrive following profound adversity The Consequences of Stress Stress produces three major consequences: direct physiological effects, harmful behaviors, and indirect health-related behaviors. Malnutrition Malnutrition Condition of having improper amount and balance of nutrients; produces several results, none good More common in children living in developing countries Slower growth rate Chronically malnourished during infancy – lower IQ score later When Malnutrition Is Severe Marasmus Malnutrition during first year Infants stop growing Attributable to severe deficiency in proteins and calories Causes the body to waste away and ultimately results in death Kwashiorkor Found in older children Child’s stomach, limbs, and face swell Body struggles to make use of few available nutrients Obesity in Infancy Clear links between obesity in infancy and obesity later in life have not been established Appropriate nutrition, rather than weight, should be the focus of parents Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Anorexia Nervosa: a severe eating disorder in which individuals refuse to eat, while denying that their behavior and appearance, which may become skeletal, our out of ordinary. Bulimia: an eating disorder characterize by binges or large quantities of food, followed by the purges of the food through vomiting or the use of laxatives. Higher incidence among females Disorder in eating and body dissatisfaction reported across socioeconomic lines Other Sexually Transmitted Infections Trichomoniasis: - an infection in the vagina or penis, which is caused by a parasite. Initially without symptoms, it can eventually cause a painful discharge. Chlamydia, - a bacterial infection, initially has few symptoms, but later it causes burning urination and a discharge from the penis or vagina. - It can lead to pelvic inflammation and even to sterility. Chlamydial infections can be treated successfully with antibiotics (Nockels & Oakshott, 1999; Favers et al., 2003). Other Sexually Transmitted Infections Genital herpes - a virus not unlike the cold sores that sometimes appear around the mouth. The first symptoms of herpes are often small blisters or sores around the genitals, which may break open and become quite painful. Although the sores may heal after a few weeks, the infection often recurs after an interval, and the cycle repeats itself. When the sores reappear, the infection, for which there is no cure, is contagious. Gonorrhea and syphilis - are the STIs that have been recognized for the longest time; cases were recorded by ancient historians. Until the advent of antibiotics, both infections were deadly. However, today both can be treated quite effectively. The Silent Danger: Lead Poisoning Some 14 million children are at risk for lead poisoning, according to the Centers for Disease Control The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has called lead poisoning the most hazardous health threat to children under the age of 6 Exposure to lead has been linked to lower intelligence, problems in verbal and auditory processing, hyperactivity, and distractibility. SIDS: The Unanticipated Killer Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a disorder in which seemingly healthy infants die in their sleep SIDS strikes about 1 in 2,500 infants in the United States each year Although it seems to occur when normal patterns of breathing during sleep are interrupted, researchers have been unable to discover why that might happen Other Sexually Transmitted Infections Human papilloma virus (HPV): - can be transmitted through genital contact without intercourse. - Most infections do not have symptoms, but HPV can produce genital warts and in some cases lead to cervical cancer. - A vaccine that protects against some kinds of HPV is now available. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends it be routinely administered to girls 11 to 12 years of age—a recommendation that has provoked considerable political reaction (Friedman et al., 2006; Kahn, 2007). Facets of Addiction Biological addiction Presence in body becomes so common that body is unable to function in their absence; causes physical - and potentially lingering - changes in nervous system; drug intake no longer may provide a “high,” but may be necessary simply to maintain the perception of everyday normalcy Psychological addiction Depend on drugs to cope with everyday stress of life; prevent adolescents from confronting - and potentially solving - problems that led them to drug use in the first place Table 4.3 Adult Preventive Health-Care Screening Recommendations (4 of 6) ADDITIONAL GUIDELINES FOR WOMEN Screening Description Ages 40 to 49 Ages 50 to 59 Ages 60+ BREAST SELF- Examination Every Every month/ Every month/Every year. EXAM/BREAS to detect month/Every Every year. T EXAM BY changes in year. PROVIDER breast that may indicate cancer. MAMMOGRAM Low-dose x-ray Every year. Every year. Every year. used to locate tumors for early detection of breast cancer. Table 4.3 Adult Preventive Health-Care Screening Recommendations (5 of 6) Screening Description Ages 40 to 49 Ages 50 to 59 Age 60+ PAP SMEAR Test that takes After 3 normal After 3 normal Women 70 and older small sample of tests in a row, tests in a row, with 3 normal tests in cells to detect screen every 2 screen every 2 a row and no cervical cancer to 3 years to 3 years abnormal tests in the or precancer unless at special unless at special 10 years prior to age cells. risk. risk. 70 may cease having Pap test. PELVIC EXAM Examination to Every year (if Every year (if Every year (if detect pelvic ovaries remain ovaries remain ovaries remain abnormality. after after after hysterectomy). hysterectomy). hysterectomy). Table 4.3 Adult Preventive Health-Care Screening Recommendations (6 of 6) ADDITIONAL GUIDELINES FOR MEN Screening Description Ages 40 to 49 Ages 50 to 59 Ages 60+ PROSTATE Blood test used Positive family Every year upon Until age 75, every SPECIFIC to detect cancer history cancer— doctor’s advice. year upon doctor’s ANTIGEN of the prostate every year; advice. gland. (African Americans— every year). TESTICULAR Examination to Every month. Every month. Every month. SELF-EXAM detect changes in testicles that may indicate cancer. Type A and B Behavior Pattern Type A behavior: Type B behavior: Competitiveness, Non-competitiveness, impatience, and a tendency patience, and a lack of aggression toward frustration and hostility Evidence that Type B people have less than Evidence is correlational, so half the risk of coronary cannot conclude that Type disease than Type A people A behavior causes heart have disease Breast Cancer Mammography, a weak X-ray, is used to detect breast cancer Death rate lower for those who had a “fighting spirit” A positive psychological outlook may boost the body’s immune system Characteristics of Alzheimer’s Disease Symptoms develop gradually Start with forgetfulness Affect recent memories first and then older memories fade Causes confusion, inability to speak intelligibly, or recognition of closest family members Loss of voluntary control of muscles occurs Inherited disorder Nongenetic factors such as high blood pressure or diet may increase susceptibility The Biology of Alzheimer’s Disease Production of the protein beta amyloid precursor protein goes awry Produces large clumps of cells that trigger inflammation and deterioration of nerve cells Brain shrinks Neuron death leads to shortage of various neurotransmitters Introducing Solid Foods: When and What? Solids can be started at 6 months but are not needed until 9 to 12 months. Introduced gradually, one at a time Cereal and strained fruits Time of weaning varies greatly across developed and developing countries Promoting Good Health in Old Age People can do specific things to enhance their physical and psychological well-being - as well as their longevity - during old age Eat a proper diet Exercise Avoid threats to health, such as smoking Is breastfeeding the best? Breast milk Offers all nutrients infants need for first 12 months of life Is more easily digested than alternative sources Provides some immunity to a variety of childhood diseases May enhance cognitive growth Offers significant emotional advantages for mother and child Not a cure-all for infant nutrition and health Introducing Solid Foods: When and What? Solids can be started at 6 months but are not needed until 9 to 12 months. Introduced gradually, one at a time Cereal and strained fruits Time of weaning varies greatly across developed and developing countries Benefits of Adequate Nutrition Relationship to social and emotional functioning More peer involvement More positive emotions Less anxiety More eagerness to explore new environments More persistent in frustrating situations Generally higher energy levels The Benefits of Exercise Many benefits accrue from maintaining a high level of physical activity throughout life.
