HRT 301 Permanent/Tree Crop Production PDF

 HRT 301 PERMANENT / TREE (PERENNIAL) CROP PRODUCTION (2 UNITS)  COCOA (Theobroma cacao, Linn.)  COCOA (Theobroma cacao, Linn.) C...

 HRT 301 PERMANENT / TREE (PERENNIAL) CROP PRODUCTION (2 UNITS)  COCOA (Theobroma cacao, Linn.)  COCOA (Theobroma cacao, Linn.) COCOA PLANTS WITH COCOA PODS / FRUITS COCOA PODS AND COCOA BEANS  Major Producing Countries ⮚Africa: Cote d’Ivoire (40% global), Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon ⮚Asia and Oceania: Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea ⮚Americas: Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia ⮚Small cocoa farms provide more than 90% of world cocoa production ⮚In Africa and Asia, a typical farm covers 2 to 5 hectares (4.9 - 12.3 acres) ⮚5-6 million cocoa farmers exist worldwide ⮚40-50 million people depend on cocoa for their livelihood  ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION ⮚Cocoa has been reclassified into Malvaceae instead of Sterculiaceae families. ⮚The crop originated from the foot of the Andes in the Upper reaches of Amazon river. ⮚Theobroma contains about 22 species, all locally used for refreshing beverages, cooked dishes and jellies.  ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION CONTD. ⮚ Evidently, the Maya Indians firstly cultivated cocoa in Mesoamerica over 2000 years ago, the beans being consumed, used as currency and for payment of dowry. ⮚ The Aztec Indians collected high levies / taxes in form of cocoa beans “cacahoatl” – the name cocoa. ⮚ The Aztec Indians attributed divine origin of cacao to a god “Quetzacoatl” (the plumed serpent). ⮚ Its beverage is referred to as xocolatl – hence the name chocolate. ⮚ The sacredness of the crop made Linnaeus to name the cultivated cocoa as Theobroma cacao – “food of gods” ⮚ Cocoa plantations were first established at Martinique in 1660 and Brazil in 1754.  ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION CONTD. ⮚ The Spaniards, Dutch, and Portuguese introduced cocoa to their overseas territories. ⮚ By 1874, cocoa got to Nigeria and Ghana from Fernando Po (now Malabo). ⮚ By 1887, cocoa plantation was established in Ibadan – seedlings obtained from Botanical Garden, Ebute-Meta Lagos. ⮚ Cocoa got to West African peasant farmers through – ▪ Trading companies ▪ Missionaries ▪ Soldiers ▪ Chiefs ▪ Farmers’ associations ▪ Cooperatives ▪ Departments of Agriculture ▪ West African Cocoa Research Institute (WACRI) (defunct) ▪ Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) ▪ Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN) Global Distribution of Cocoa  Top Cocoa Producing Countries In The World ❖ Rank Country Production (tonnes) 1 Cote d'Ivoire 1,448,992 2 Ghana 835,466 3 Indonesia 777,500 4 Nigeria 367,000 5 Cameroon 275,000 6 Brazil 256,186 7 Ecuador 128,446 8 Mexico 82,000 9 Peru 71,175 10 Dominican Republic 68,021 11 Colombia 46,739 12 Papua New Guinea 41,200 13 Venezuela 31,236 14 Uganda 20,000 15 Togo 15,000 16 Sierra Leone 14,850 17 Guatemala 13,127 18 India 13,000 19 Haiti 10,000 20 Madagascar 9,000  TOP 10 COCOA PRODUCING COUNTRIES IN ORDER OF OUTPUT ❖Cote d’Ivore ❖Ghana ❖Indonesia ❖Nigeria ❖Cameroon ❖Brazil ❖Ecuador ❖Mexico ❖Peru ❖Dominican Republic World flow of cocoa beans  COCOA PRODUCING STATES IN NIGERIA ⮚Oyo ⮚Ogun ⮚Ondo ⮚Osun ⮚Ekiti ⮚Edo ⮚Delta ⮚Akwa Ibom ⮚Cross River ⮚Kwara ⮚Kogi ⮚Adamawa ⮚Taraba ⮚Abia  Cultivated Species Of Cocoa ❖The Criollo, ❖The Amazonian forastero ❖The Trinitario  Botany And Agronomy of Cocoa ❖ Cocoa is cauliflorous and semi-desidous. ❖ Stem growth which is intermittently interrupted by the degeneration of the terminal bud, below which branches develop – Jorquette. ❖ Pruning starts at the level of 2nd jorquette through the removal of excessive orthotropic shoots – chupons. ❖ Growth in cacao is discontinuous / determinate and in successive growth phases – flushes. ❖ Flowering is a marked indicator of successful field establishment, and anthesis may be attained in 2 years in improved varieties and it may take a longer period in landrace / unimproved varieties of cocoa. ❖ Within 36 hours after pollination, fertilization occurs leading to the formation of a young okra-sized pod – cherelle.  Botany and Agronomy of Cocoa Contd. ❖In mature cocoa, fruiting occurs twice a year in the tropics – dry (November / December) and rainy (June / July) seasons. ❖Cocoa is an out-breeder and an entomophilous plant. ❖Pollinators – ⮚Midges ⮚Ants ⮚Thrips ⮚Leaf hoppers. ❖Within 36 hours after pollination, fertilization occurs leading to the formation of a young okra-sized pod – cherelle. Developing cocoa pods and cherelle Jorquetting in Theobroma cacao Pod-breaking and bean extraction  Raising cocoa seedlings in the nursery. ❖ Cocoa beans readily germinate when sown and lose viability easily on extraction from pods within 5 days unless specially treated with moist fine soil or sawdust. They retain viability for 4 weeks inside pod after harvesting. ❖ Nursery establishment is done between December and February, in order to allow the seedlings a period of 4 months under intensive care. ❖ Seedlings bags of 20/25cm x 13cm are used for raising the seedlings. They are filled with sifted top soil, heavily watered the previous day and arranged under a shade in the nursery. ❖ The beans are sown at seeding rate of 2 per bag and later thinned to 1 per bag after germination. Daily light watering till germination at 7 -10 days. Adequate watering follows. ❖ Regularly examine for the incidence of disease and insect pests. Seedlings that show symptoms of bacterial or viral infections must be burnt outside the plot. Fungal and insect attacks are chemically controlled.  Harvesting and post-harvest handling of cocoa ❖ Only mature and ripe pods are harvested and processed, diseased and damaged pods must not be processed for markets. ❖ Harvesting should be regular and frequent in order to avoid damage due to over- ripening, disease and animals. ❖ In a case of irregular / delayed harvesting, the beans start germinating in-situ, such cocoa is unsuitable for processing and / or marketing. ❖ Harvesting of unripe cocoa pods results in poor-quality beans with low aromatic compounds after fermentation. ❖ During harvesting flower cushion must not be damaged, if damaged, subsequent years’ harvests will be reduced. ❖ Cocoa pods must not be pulled off in order to avoid any damage to flower cushions. ❖ Pods are ready for harvesting when colour changes from green to yellow/pink/red, depending on varieties.  Harvesting contd. ❖In West Africa, there 2 cocoa seasons: ⮚Main crop season – September to March ⮚Light crop season – April to August ❖Harvesting tools include: ⮚Sharp cutlass, for removing pods within easy reach. ⮚A sharp knife with short handle, for removing pods well above ground level. ⮚A sharp knife attached to a long pole (go-to-hell) for plucking pods at the top-most part of cacao. ⮚A basket or other container for packing pods. Harvesting technique in cocoa.  Post-harvest handling of cocoa beans Fermentation – – Fermentation in cocoa is a process by which mucilaginous pulp surrounding the beans is removed under the gradual influence of heat and pressure for the purpose of removing the beans’ bitter taste and the development of acceptable bean flavour and colour. ❖Cocoa is fermented by different methods of fermentation which include: ⮚Heap fermentation ⮚Basket fermentation ⮚Sweat box fermentation ⮚Tray fermentation.  Economic importance of cocoa ❖ Beverages (not tea) ❖ Foreign exchange earnings. ❖ Black soaps ❖ Herbs ❖ Chocolates ❖ Ice cream ❖ Cocoa juice ❖ Wine production ❖ Gin production ❖ Hair cream ❖ Body cream ❖ Toilet soaps ❖ Fire wood ❖ Organic nutrient sources ❖ Wrapping of pap ❖ Employment generation ❖ Recreational / ornamental uses ❖ Income generation. Permanent Crop Production (HRT 301) Lecturer: Prof. Olubode, O. Olusegun Department of Horticulture, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta February 2021 Anticipate TEAM SYNERGY Agroclimatic-analogue Agroclimatic-analogue, or Homoclime, technique has to do with arrangements of geographical locations that can accommodate, support and produce crops in comparable strength as obtainable at the crop origin. Agroclimatic Analogue can assist in selection of crops suitable for introduction into different locations for reasons of providing food security and population sustainability. Agroclimatic-analogue, or Homoclime, technique is such that similar ecologic or agroclimatic areas are delimited in different countries of the world by the comparison of all available climatological, geographic, and soils data. This technique aids in the selection of plants for introduction into a region and will facilitate the effective distribution of new strains and reduce the waste of limited supplies of new material. Introduction: Why Is Crop Agriculture Located Where It Is? Environmental, economic, and societal factors have determined the location of crop agriculture. Environmental factors that influence the extent of arable land are terrain, climate, soil properties, and soil water. Requirements for crop growth include adequate spacing, light, heat or warmth, and moisture. Soil must be deep enough with drainage, texture, and adequate fertility. Terrain must not be at too high an elevation for accessibility, and the slopes gentle enough to prevent soil and nutrient. Of these environmental characteristics, only soil water and soil fertility can be significantly modified over large areas. Irrigation, drainage, and fertilization allow for crops to thrive in areas where environmental factors alone would not meet their basic needs. Fruit growing involves a more complicated technology than the cultivation of herbaceous annuals such as cereals or pulse crops. Tree crop culture requires a long-term series of horticultural “craft secrets” more or less unique for each species. These include selection of unique clones, vegetative propagation (use of offshoots, cuttings, grafting), continuous irrigation in dry climates, pruning and training, pollination, harvesting, storage, and processing.  The cycle of fruit growing is often a year-round activity, and must involve orchard establishment in anticipation of production, which may only occur after a number of years. Current additions to the technology of fruit growing include the use of dwarfing rootstocks, growth regulators, disease and pest control, long-term storage, protected cultivation, and biotechnology. Species Selection The first cultivated fruits were the indigenous species that had human value, like was observed in Egypt where the indigenous date palm was the earliest species cultivated, followed by a succession of introduced fruits such as the Sycomore, Fig and Pomegranate. The earliest fruit culture in Mesopotamia included the Date and Olive (4000 BCE), Grape, Fig, and Pomegranate (3rd millennium BCE). Later fruits introductions, include the Apple, Pear, Quince, and Medlar. Contacts between East and West date from as early as 1000 BCE as evidence by silk strands on Egyptian mummies, but intensified with the incursions of Alexander the Great (356– 323 BCE). Thus, at the Greek and Roman eras there was an infusion of Central and East Asian fruits, including the citron and a great variety of stone fruits, including almond, apricot, cherry, peach and plum.  In the Age of Exploration in the late 15th and 16th centuries, a great exchange took place as fruits of the Americas, including the pineapple, cacao, American species of strawberries, and papaya reached Europe, Asia, and Africa while East Asian fruits, such as the banana, mango, and persimmon reached the Americas. Some east Asian fruits, such as kiwifruit, are relatively recent introductions, and a great many tropical fruits of both Asia (Durian, Mangosteen, Salaak) and the Americas (Passion fruit, Sapote) are yet to be extensively commercialized. Category FAO Crop Definitions Fruit Includes: bananas, plantains, oranges, tangerines, mandarins, clementines, satsumas, lemons, limes, grapefruit, pomelo, apples, pears, quinces, apricots, sour cherries, peaches, nectarines, plums, stone fruit, strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, currants, blueberries, cranberries, grapes, figs, persimmons, kiwi fruit, mangoes, avocadoes, pineapple, dates, cashew apple, and papayas. Other Important Includes: tea, coffee, cocoa, mate, tobacco, natural rubber, chicory Annual/Tree/ roots, carobs, hops, peppermint and spearmint, pyrethrum, Arabic Fruit crops gum, and other resins. Food Security According to the United Nations' Committee on World Food Security, means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life The five components of Food Security include Availability, Access, Use and Utilization, Stability. Definition and Measurement of Food Security The conceptual definitions of food security, food insecurity, and hunger synthesized by the LSRO’s expert panel have been stated as follows: Food Security: Access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. Food Insecurity: Limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, or limited or uncertain access to food. Hunger: The uneasy or painful sensation caused by a lack of food. The recurrent and involuntary lack of access to food... Hunger, in its meaning of the uneasy or painful sensation caused by a lack of food, is... a potential, although not necessary, consequence of food insecurity. Malnutrition is also a potential, although not necessary, consequence of food insecurity. Degree of diversification of agricultural commodities. Here we map an Agricultural Commodity Diversification Index (ACDI), which is based on the ratio of the relative crop fraction of existing crops to the average mean relative crop fraction. This data set only represents the diversification in cultivation of the selected major crops in this study Fruit Crops Species  Citrus species Plate 1: The citrus fruits and flowers Plate 2: Types of citrus species showing Sweet Orange, Shaddock and Lime Fig. 1: Structure of Citrus fruit. (Goudeau et al, 2008). Name The generic name of citrus originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as Citron (C. medica) or a conifer tree (Thuja). It is somehow related to the ancient Greek word for cedar κέδρος (kédros). This may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Collectively, Citrus fruits and plants are also known by the Roman loanword agrumes (literally "sour fruits"). Origin / Evolution The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus plants diverged from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago. About 7 million years ago, citrus plants diverged into two groups, the main citrus genus and the ancestors of the Trifoliate orange (poncirus), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus. A DNA study published in Nature in 2018, concludes that citrus trees originated in the foothills of the Himalayas, in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar. The three original species in the citrus genus that have been hybridized into most modern commercial citrus fruit are the mandarin orange, pummels and citron. Within the last few thousand years, all common citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) were created by crossing those original species. Citrus fruits clustered by genetic similarity. Ternary diagram based on data from Curk, et al. (2016). CITRUS SPECIES Citrus - family Rutaceae which contain about 150 genera and nearly 2000 species of which very few species are of economic importance. They are evergreen trees, small statured with thorny stems and branches. The fruits are small to large with leathery rind, yellow to orange in colour when ripe. The pulp and juice may vary in taste from sweet to acid. Examples: Economic Importance/Uses of Citrus The main commercial product of citrus is the juice which can then be consumed in various forms e.g. juice and wine, confectioneries (jam, marmalade). Other by-products that are of use may include as in fresh fruit for supply of nutrients, vitamins e.g. Vitamin C, Health/Medicine, Essential Rind oils used pharmaceutical industries, rind used as insect repellant, etc. Fruit pulp as fodder for livestock or fuel for combustion and wood from citrus can serve as source of fire wood. BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME Citrus sinensis Sweet orange Citrus paradisi Grapefruit Citrus limon Lemon Citrus reticulata Tangerine / Cleopatra mandarin (wild citrus ) Citrus aurantifolia Lime Citrus aurantium Sour orange Citrus grandis (Pomelo) Shaddock Citrus sinensis x Citrus reticulata King orange Citrus paradisi x Citrus reticulata Tangelo Citrus jambhiri Rough lemon Varieties of Citrus sinensis Pineapple, Parson brown, Umudike,Washington navel, Valencia, Agege 1. Varieties of Citrus limon- Eureka, Lisbon, Varieties of Citrus paradisi- Red blush, Duncan Varieties of Citrus reticulata Clementine; Dancy Major Producing States in Nigeria Oyo; Ogun Plateau Benue Nassarawa Imo Internationally Argentina Algeria Brazil California Chile Europe Florida Spain Portugal Morocco:  Table 1–World’s leading citrus fruit producers.. Country Grapefruit Lemons and Oranges Tangerines (a)Other Total limes China 2768308 1014446 4864959 9746287 4694471 23088471 Brazil 66895 972437 17618500 1094430 NA (b) 19752262 U.S.A. 1182970 827350 8280780 401880 47170 10740150 India 193822 2571530 5201350 NA 161691 8128393 Mexico 395000 1987450 4193480 442108 106539 7124577 Spain 38700 551000 2617700 2026200 6500 5240100 Note: All values listed are tons, (a) Includes tangerines, mandarins, and clementines., (b) NA, not available. Source: FAO 2009 The Mango The Mango (Mangifera indica) Origin The mango originated, in the foothills of the Himalayas of the southern Asia (eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands) bordering the Bay of Bengal, dating back to 4000 BC, where it still grows wild in the hills of Assam and adjacent areas. The earliest mention of mango tree is found in ancient Sanskrit scriptures dating back to ~ 4000 BC. Mangifera indica, means ‘the great fruit bearer’. Historical records and palaeo- botanical evidences provide ample proof about its origin in the Indo-Burma-Malay region. On the basis of presence of maximum number of allied species growing in Malaysia, some workers are lead to believe that Malaysian region is the original home of mango. Acording to Vavilov (1926) supported that mango is originated in Indo-Burma region. Mukherjee (1949b) concluded that occurrence of wild form of Mangifera indica and its allied species and presence of numerous cultivated and wild varieties in India were some of the major reasons in favour of mango having originated in Indo-Burma region. Fruit yields Fruit yields vary with cultivar, climatic and edaphic conditions of the production site, cultural practices and other factors, such as diseases and insect pests. Yields over many years exhibit a sigmoidal curve, initially with low yields, increasing more rapidly and then dropping off as trees become crowded. The period of maximum production depends upon tree growth rate; a rapidly growing cultivar is more likely to show decreasing yields earlier, due to crowding. Mango yield studies over a sufficient number of years involving replicated plantings are relatively rare, due to time and cost. The adjusted cultivar mean yield can be separated into three yield groups. i.) The high-yielding group order include - ‘Ruby’, ‘Sensation’, ‘Eldon’. ‘Lippens’ and ‘Irwin’; ii.) The intermediate group include - ‘Early gold’, ‘Keitt’, ‘Parvin’, ‘Zill’, ‘Haden’ and ‘Palmer’; ii.) The low-yield group include - ‘Pillsbury’, ‘Kent’, ‘Edward’, ‘Santaella’ and ‘Jacquelin’. Cultivar consistency of bearing also gave three different groupings, having different cultivar make-up: i.) The regular bearers include - ‘Edward’, ‘Zill’, ‘Pillsbury’, ‘Ruby’, ‘Lippens’ and ‘Irwin’ ii.) The intermediate consistency include - ‘Sensation’, ‘Santaella’, ‘Parvin’, ‘Earlygold’ and ‘Jacquelin’ iii.) The highly inconsistent in yield include - ‘Kent’, ‘Eldon’, ‘Palmer’, ‘Haden’ and ‘Keitt’ The consistent-bearing cultivars with high yields were ‘Ruby’, ‘Lippens’ and ‘Irwin’. ‘Edward’, ‘Zill’ and ‘Pillsbury’ show regular- bearing habit but consistently produce low yields. Mature trees can yield 10–30 t/ha, with an average of 22–25 t/ha in the subtropics. In the tropics, commercial yields of 10 t/ha are expected from high-quality cultivars. The Papaya The Papaya (Carica papaya) showing the Homestead and Sunrise solo varieties  The Carica papaya, one of the 22 accepted species in the genus Carica of the family Caricaceae. Its origin is in the tropics of the Americas, perhaps from Central America and southern Mexico. The papaya Carica, Eurphobiacia, a genus with about 40 species is indigenous to tropical America (Purseglove 1968), is derived from natural hybridization is a frost-tender, non-woody plant reaching a height of 8 m. It is widely grown as a dooryard plant throughout the tropics for the melon-sized fruit usually consumed for breakfast. The proteolytic enzyme papain has been exploited as a meat tenderizer and has been used for some surgical procedures. The tree is commonly dioecious although there are types that are considered polygamodioecious with both hermaphroditic and pistillate plants. In these types (e.g. ‘Solo’, the popular Hawaiian cultivar with fruit averaging about 600 g) fruit shape of the hermaphroditic types are pyriform (the preferred type) while the fruits from pistillate trees are round. The tree has a short juvenile phase but is short lived. Papaya is one of the few fruits that are propagated exclusively by seed.  Pawpaw is an important agricultural export for developing countries, the export revenues of the fruit provide a livelihood for thousands of people, and contribute to the growing supply of healthy food products in international markets. The nutritional importance of fruit crops that Pawpaw has a good amount of minerals and carotene; it is regarded as a good source of iron, calcium, vitamins A, B and C. Nonetheless, its carotenoid content is low compared with mango and tomato. Pawpaw is also valued for its medicinal properties and as valuable sources of medicinal products that can be used for treatment of life threatening infectious diseases. The industrial importance of pawpaw lies in its production of papain and other related proteolytic enzymes such as chymo-papain. Papain, a thiol protease which is abundant in the milky latex of fruits, is used for food and for the textile and perfume industries.  The world pawpaw production was estimated in 2010 at 11,223,031 metric tons (t), including 4,713,800 t from India (38.61%), 1,871,300 t from Brazil (17.50%), 703,800 t from Nigeria (6.79%), Indonesia (695,214 t), Mexico (616, 215 t) and Ethiopia (232,400 t). Asia has been the leading pawpaw producing region, accounting for 52.55% of the global production between 2008 and 2010, followed by South America (23.09%) and Africa (13.16%). Other countries involved in commercial pawpaw production for papain include Sri Lanka and Tanzania. Production of fresh fruit per hectare differs among cultivars. The choice of cultivar to grow depends on the required production type or use to which the fruits is to be put. For local fresh fruit consumption or supplies to distant market indices such as fruit quality, flesh color, taste and firmness, and consumer preference count. Generally, the dioecious pawpaw cultivars are preferred for extraction of papain because the yields and proteolytic activity of the crude papain from the female fruits are greater than those of the hermaphrodites. However, for commercial fruit planting, hermaphrodite plants from Solo group of pawpaw are preferred because they produce pear-shaped fruits which have thicker flesh and smaller internal cavity than fruits from female plants. The Cashew The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale L.)  The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a native of tropical America from Mexico to Peru and Brazil and of the West Indies as well (Kumar et al., 2012), and it has become naturalized in coastal areas of many tropical countries (IBPGR, 1986). The cashew trees are distributed across tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions in the world (Engels et al., 2012), and are spread between latitudes 27° N in Southern Florida and 28° S of South Africa; and also in low latitude regions, near the equator, between the parallel 15° N and 15° S, in coastal areas, typically tropical South America, Africa and Asia (Gomes, 2010). The Anacardiaceae family has 76 genera divided into five tribes (Anacardiaceae, Dobineae, Rhoeae, Semecarpeae and Spondiadeae) covering about 600 species (Correia et al., 2006). The family is rich in important secondary metabolites with varieties of interesting biological activities (Abu-Reidah et al., 2015). Some other important species of Anacardiaceae include mango (Mangifera indica), pistachio (Pistacia vera), amra (Spondia spp.), pink peppercorn (Schinus terebinthifolia), marula nut (Sclerocarya birrea), and neotropical fruits (Antrocaryon spp.) (Saroj et al., 2014). Twenty-one species of the genus Anacardium were identified through classical taxonomy (Barros, 1005). Among these species, Anacardium occidentale L. is the single cultivated and widely distributed (Johnson, 1973; Ohler, 1979; Mitchell and Mori, 1987), and represents 90% of cashew production in Brazil (Leite et al., 2016).  Cashew orchards are of great importance for the social economy of many developing regions of the world. Among the edible nuts that are traded globally, cashew ranks third in world production. Worldwide, trade in cashews exceeds US$ 2 billion and demand is increasing. Of the total world supply, 110,000 t that are traded on international markets, India (60%) and Brazil (31%) are major exporters. Although the tree will not produce fruit in areas of very low rainfall, nonetheless the edible young leaves and the wood are still valued, as they are fairly hard with a density of about 500 kg m -3 , being used as timber, firewood and in the production of charcoal. The bark and leaves are used in folk medicine. World demand for cashew nuts has increased at a rate of about 4% annually from 2007 to 2011 (FAO, 2013; INC, 2013). The production of raw cashew nut (RCN) has grown from 0.29 Mt in 1961 to 2.60 Mt in 2013, registering an 804% increase with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.13% (Cashew Handbook, 2014). The increase in the global production is due to the realization of the health and economic value of the crop. The ever-increasing global demand for cashew nuts as remarked by Adavi (2008) is because cashew kernels provide a predominantly unsaturated fat. The world leading countries in cashew production area and production in 2012 include India (923,000 ha for 613,000 Nutritional Uses Cashew has two consumable parts – the apple and the kernel. Cashew kernel, which is the main commercial product of the cashew tree is the edible part of the nut, is nutritious, containing fats (46 to 47%, of which 87% are unsaturated fatty acids), protein (18 to 21%) and carbohydrates (29 to 31%) (Brufau et al., 2006). It also has concentrations of phosphorous (593 mg), magnesium (292 mg), and potassium (660 mg), and various vitamins, the main ones being E (0.90 mg) and K. Health benefits Cashew and its products are curative to many human health problems and offer a variety of advantages to a human body. In particular, cashew nut helps to lower the cholesterol level in blood, control diabetes and coronary heart disease risk (Desai et al., 2017; Ros, 2010). Cashew nuts are rich in magnesium which is vital for healthy bone development and prevention of high blood pressure (Dendena and Corsi, 2014). Furthermore, the plant creates an antibacterial, vesicant and anthelmintic property. Despite the lower levels of unsaturated fatty acids in the cashews compared to other tree nuts, consumption of cashews could reduce risk of cardiovascular disease(Griffin and Dean, 2017; Van Horn et al., 2008). Industrial uses Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) – containing cardol and anacardic acid has numerous industrial applications such as fungicide, pesticide, insecticide, friction linings, paints, and varnishes, laminating resins, rubber compounding resins, cashew cement, polyurethane based polymers, surfactants, epoxy resins, foundry chemicals and intermediates for chemical industry (INC, 2015; Judge and Azam-Ali, 2001; Taiwo, 2015). The application of CNSL component in bacteriostatic antibiotics is recently gaining attention. Their effect on plant growth, acid activity, wood preservative, and pressure treatment activity are being explored (Taiwo, 2015). Biological and agricultural uses Cashew has a superior characteristic to grow well in areas with marginal agro-ecological conditions and dry climates – it is fast-growing, low input and droughttolerant tree. Cashew can be intercropped with other crops like cowpea, groundnuts, horse gram, maize, cassava, yam, and vegetables at establishment phase with high profit when it is intercropped with maize and yam (Lawal and Uwagboe, 2017; Opoku-Ameyaw et al., 2011). Cashew apple extract, cashew nut shell crude extract, and bark gum extract are used as insecticides (Buxton et al., 2017) and antifungal (Kannan et al., 2009). Economic uses Cashew is the major export commodity in the main cashew producing and/or processing countries like India, Vietnam, Brazil, and Cote d`Ivoire. Cashew can be traded in two ways: as a raw cashew nut (RCN) or in processed form (mainly cashew kernel). Cashew kernel is being considered as a high-value agricultural commodity, and interestingly increasing and expanding in international trade because global kernel demand is predicted to increase over the following decade (The World Bank, 2016). India, Vietnam and Cote d`Ivoire are among the leading countries being benefited from cashew products export. Other uses Cashew wood is popular for firewood and charcoal. The residue of the shell is often used as fuel in cashew nut shell liquid extraction plants. Pulp from the wood is used to fabricate corrugated and cardboard boxes. The cake remaining after oil has been extracted from the kernel serves as animal food. Seed coats are used as poultry feed. The ripened cashew apple or its residue could be utilized for the preparation of cattle feed, pig feed and poultry feed. The pineapple The pineapple (Ananas comosus, Bromeliaceae)  The pineapple (Ananas comosus, Bromeliaceae) was domesticated in preColumbian tropical South America, probably north of the Amazon River with a possible secondary center in southeast Brazil. Selection was based on fruit size, seedlessness and parthenocarpy, long, fibrous smooth leaves and ease of vegetative propagation. In fact, the pineapple can be propagated in a number of ways (stumps, offshoots, slips, and the fruit crown). The pineapple plant is very tough and desiccation resistant and wide distribution occurred in the Americas though human migration and exchange. It was present in all adapted areas of the New World at the time of the European encounter with America. There are about 6 cultivar groups (Spanish, Cayenne, Queen, Pernambuco, and Maiopure), but only two ‘Cayenne’ and ‘Queen’ were commercially important for most of the 20th century despite the fact that the pineapple became associated with a tremendous processing industry. The ‘Cayenne’ cultivar has been the mainstay of the processing industry because of its robust, large, romboid fruit, which produces many slices, the most valued product.  F i g. 1 0. 1. D i s tr i b uti on of th e p i ne ap p l e p l ant l e av e s , ac c or di ng to ag e ( A - ol de s t; F – y oun g e s t). ( P y , 1 9 6 9 ; M al av ol ta, 1 9 8 2 ). The leaves are classified, according to their shape and their position on the plant, as A, B, C, D, E, F, from the oldest on the outside, to the youngest towards the centre. The ‘D’ leaf, the youngest amongst the adult leaves and the most physiologically active, which can be easily separated from the plant is used to evaluate the growth and nutritional state of the plant. It is the tallest leaf and grows at 45º to the soil surface and it presents its lower borders perpendicular to the base. Inserted into the stem is the peduncle which supports the flowers and, later on, the sorosis type fruit. Varieties In international trade, the numerous pineapple cultivars are grouped in four main classes: 'Smooth Cayenne', 'Red Spanish', 'Queen', and 'Abacaxi', despite much variation in the types within each class. The ‘Smooth Cayenne’ group is the more productive in tropical conditions, while the ‘Queen’ group is grown mainly in subtropical areas. ‘Smooth Cayenne’ is most sensitive to low-temperature-induced internal browning (chilling injury, blackheart), while ‘Red Spanish’ is less sensitive. Major areas of commercial cultivation are found between 30° N and S latitudes, with some areas considered marginal for various reasons. Minor plantings extend pineapple production to subtropical areas with mild climates beyond 30° N and S latitudes and even under protective shelters. Pineapple cultivars show considerable variation in their plant growth and fruit size when grown in different environments. Greater variation in cultivar yield response occurs in less favourable environment.  Pineapple is in the bromeliad family, which has about 45 genera and 2000 species. The Bromeliaceae originated in tropical America except for one species, Pitcairnia felicana (Aug. Chev.) Harms & Mildbr., a native of tropical West Africa. Plants are herbaceous or shrubby and classified as epiphytic or terrestrial. The pineapple (Ananas comosus L., Merrill) is a tropical plant, a monocotyledon and a herbaceous perennial, of the family Bromeliaceae, with about 50 genera and 2,000 known species. In addition to the fruit as a food, many species are grown for their leaf fibre from which bagging material is produced, and other species are grown as ornamentals. The plant has a short, thick stem around which grow narrow, rigid trough-shaped leaves, and from which auxiliary roots develop. The root system is superficial and fibrous and generally grows no deeper than 30 cm and is rarely more than 60 cm from the soil surface. Adult plants of the commercial varieties measure 0.80 m to 1.20 m in height and 1.00 to 1.50 m in diameter. Pineapple is one of the tropical fruits in greatest demand on the international market, with world production in 2004 of 16.1 million mt. Of this total, Asia produces 51% (8.2 million mt), with Thailand (12%) and the Philippines (11%) the two most productive countries. America and Africa contribute 32% and 16% of world production, respectively, with Brazil (9%) and Nigeria (6%) also being major producers (FAO, 2006). Pineapple is a good source of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), some vitamin A, calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium and thiamine. It is low in sodium. Cut pieces are used as a dessert, in salads and cooked meat dishes, and in fruit cocktail mixes. Today, the pineapple is found in almost all the tropical and subtropical areas of the world, and it ranks third in production of tropical fruits, behind bananas and citrus. Plantain/Banana Plantain/Banana plants commonly called Bananas  The cigar leaf is a recently emerged leaf still rolled as a cylinder. The female (pistillate) flowers appear first. In cultivated bananas, the ovary develops into a seedless fruit by parthenocarpy (without being pollinated). the distal portion of the inflorescence elongates and produces clusters of male (staminate) flowers, ORIGIN The genus Musa originated in Southeast Asia (area between India, Papua New Guinea and Pacific islands), where the wild species Musa acuminate and M. Balsbisiana occur. Wild varieties are not found in Africa (except in collections). The great variability of bananas on the African continent therefore is the result of somatic mutations or somacional variation (spontaneous changes that occur at very low frequencies in the highland bananas (hereafter called bananas) thus suggest a long history of their cultivation in Africa. West and central Africa, where 119 plantain cultivars have been identified so far, and East Africa, with more than 70 highland cultivars, are considered to be the secondary centres of variation for these respective banana groups. Only a few plantain and highland cultivars are found in southeast Asia and Latin America. Because of the large variability of plantains and highland bananas in Africa it is hypothesized that they arrived 1,500 to 3,000 years ago. Possibly they first arrived in East Africa near Zanzibar (Tanzania) or reached the continent through Madagascar. From eastern Africa they moved westward through the forest belt in conjunction with Bantu migrations. The Portuguese were apparently involved in their distribution in West Africa. After the discovery of the Americans, the Spanish and Portuguese took some cultivars to the new continent.  Banana plants, commonly called bananas, are monocotyledonous plants belonging to the Musaceae family of the Zingiberales order. They are botanically related to the Cannaceae (genus Canna). Lowlaceae (genus orchidantha). Marantaceae (e.g. genus Heliconia). Costaceae (e.g. genera strelitzia, Ravenaia), Heliconiaceae (genus Heliconia). Costaceae (e.g. genus costus) and Zingiberaceae (e.g. genera Zingiber, Alpinia, Curcuma, Hedychium). Both genera of the Musaceae, i.e. Musa and Ensete are cultivated in Africa. Whereas banana are grown throughout Africa, ensete (also called false banana) is mainly grown on the highlands of Ethiopia. The genus Musa comprises five sections: Australimusa (n = 10), Callimusa (n = 9 or 10), Rodochlamys (n = 11) , Eumusa (n = 11) and Ingentimusa (n = 14). Bananas cultivated in Africa all belong to Eumusa, in descending order of importance, they are the highland cooking (Matooke) abd beer bananas, both with an AAA genome, plantains (AAB), dessert bananas (AAA, AAB, AB and AA) and ABB cooking bananas. The genome configuration refers to the wild species M. acuminate Colla and M. balbisiana M. acuminate (AA) and M. balbisiana (BB) are both diploids with a basic chromosome number of n =11. The number of letters of a genome configuration indicates the ploidy level. Most African bananas are triploids with the exception of a few dessert cultivars such as Kamaramasenge (AB). Figue sucree (AA). Paka (AA) and Sikuzani (AA). Genus Musa Edible bananas are derived from either Musa acuminata (A) or Musa balbisiana (B), or a combination of both. Cultivars are diploid or triploid, with some new tetraploids developed by breeding. Considerable somatic variation has led to a great range of cultivars. Cultivars are described by their name and genomic make-up, e.g. ‘Agbagba’ AAB, the AAB indicating that it is a hybrid with two genomes of A and one genome of B. Most dessert bananas, e.g. ‘Paranta’ AAA or “Omini” AA, are AA or AA, with the triploid AAA being the most important in the trade. The different groups and subgroups have somewhat distinct fruit characteristics. The genome configuration refers to the wild species M. acuminata Colla and M. balbisiana Colla that provided the genome A and B respectively. M. acuminata differs from M. balbisiana mainly in 15 characteristics: 2 vegetative (pseudostem colour and petiole canal shape) and 13 generative ones (peduncle hairiness, pedicel size, number of ovule rows, bract shoulder, curling, shape and apex, bract colour at both sides, bract scars, male flower corrugation, and colour and stigma colour). M. acuminata has a number of morphological characters that separate it from M. balbisiana. For example, M. acuminata has an open petiolar canal, which in M. balbisiana is closed. M. acuminata has prominent bract scars, bracts that are lanceolate and curl, and two regular rows of ovules, compared with four irregular rows in M. balbisiana. Using and scoring 15 morphological characters allows the relative contribution of the two species to be determined in hybrid cultivars. Triploids and tetraploids are larger and more robust than diploids. Use Consumption of bananas reaches 250kg per head per year in the highlands of East Africa, the highest consumption rate in the world. This underscores the importance of bananas as a staple food and contrasts sharply with the average consumption of approximately 10kg per head per year in Europe. In West Africa, plantains and dessert bananas contribute up to 25% of the carbohydrate intake of 60 million people. Unripe and ripe fruits are eaten, Green fruits of plantains and cooking bananas are boiled, peeled and eaten as such or mashed and mixed with spices, fish or other food. Yellow, unpeeled plantain fruits can be roasted while peeled ones are sliced and fried in palm oil. Overripe plantains and cooking bananas can be eaten raw. When dessert bananas are in the yellow ripening stages, they are soft and sweet and are eaten fresh. In times of famine, green dessert bananas are boiled and eaten. Beer bananas are mainly used for the production of alcoholic drinks. Leaf sheaths of old pseudostems are torn in ribbons, which are used as rope. Cut leaves are used as an umbrella. Food is often wrapped in banana leaves. In some areas, leaves are still used as roofing materials. Pseudostems and leaves are occasionally fed to pigs and cattle after harvest. Production More than 100 million tons of banana and plantain were produced worldwide in 2007 according to FAO estimates. Banana are grown in nearly 130 countries. Uganda is the largest producer of banana and plantain in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), followed by Rwanda, Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon. The amount of nutrients removed by the harvest of cv. ‘Cavendish’ fresh fruit with a yield of 50 t/ha/year includes 189 kg/ha nitrogen (N), 29 kg/ha P, 778 kg/ha K and 101 kg/ha calcium (Ca). As a proportion of the total nutrients taken up by the banana plant, this is equivalent to 49% of the N, 56% of the P, 54% of the K and 45% of the Ca. These total amounts and proportions are about half of those for plantain. The Avocado The Avocado or Aguacate, (P. americana Mill)  Avocado is a dicotyledonous plant from the Ranales order and the Lauraceae family. It was classified as Persea gratissima by Gaertner, and Persea americana by Miller. P. americana developed subspecies due to geographical isolation that finally originated different botanical types. The avocado tree (Persea americana Mill.) belongs to the family Lauraceae and is one of the few commercially significant members of the genus Persea. The fruit is called ‘Ahuacatl’ by the Aztecs and from there derived the term ‘avocado’, ‘aguacate’ (in Spanish), ‘avocat’ (in French) and ‘abacate’ (in Portuguese). The Aztecs considered avocados an aphrodisiac and called it huacatl, meaning testicles, referring to the fruit’s shape and the way they hang from the tree. The fruit is also called ‘palta’ in Chile, Ecuador and Peru, and also has been referred to as alligator pear, vegetable butter, butter pear and midshipman’s butter.  The avocado is botanically classified into three races: (1) West Indian (WI), Persea americana Mill. var. americana (P. gratissima Gaertn.), tropical with large variably shaped fruit and lower oil content; (2) (2) Mexican (MX), P. a mericana Mill. var. drymifolia Blake (P. drymifolia Schlecht.& Cham.), semi-tropical with smaller elongated thin-skinned fruit and higher oil content; and (3) (3) Guatemalan (G), P. nubigena var. guatemalensis L. Wms., subtropical with mostly round thick-skinned fruit and intermediate oil content (Bergh & Lahav 1996). The Mexican race, which originated in the mountains of México and Central America, is characterized by relatively small fruit, ranging from 75 to 300 g, with a thin, smooth skin. Fruit of the Guatemalan race are native to the highlands of Central America and are not as resistant to low temperatures as those of the Mexican race, characterized by large fruit, averaging 500–600 g, and thick brittle skin. The West Indian race is native to the lowlands of Central America and northern South America, characterized by intermediate fruit size, with smooth, leathery and sometimes glossy skin. There are differences in fruit maturity and oil content between the different races (Biale & Yo 1971). Generally, West Indian avocado trees are the most cold sensitive and are damaged  The avocado originated in Central America and southern Mexico. Based on archaeological evidence found in Tehuacán, Puebla (Mexico), it is believed that it appeared approximately 12 000 years ago. It has been determined that the centre of origin of this fruit is the central part of Mexico, passing through Guatemala to Central America. In this region, the natural gene stock can be found, which can be useful to the biotechnological improvement of the s pecies. As evidence for this theory, primitive avocado trees have been found in the ‘Oriental Sierra Madre’ along from the State of Nuevo León (Mexico) to Costa Rica. From this region avocado dispersed to the south-eastern part of the United States, the West Indies, to a large part of South America (Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile) (Rodríguez Suppo 1992). Nutritional and physicochemical characteristics of avocado Avocado is consumed in various forms as puree salads, seasoned with salt, pepper, vinegar and other condiments, as well as being used in the preparation of other dishes. In Brazil, the ripe fruit is more appreciated, together with sugar, honey and liqueurs, and consumption is influenced mainly by its sensory and nutritional characteristics. Avocado is an energetic fruit with high nutritional value and is considered a major tropical fruit, since it is rich in protein and contains fat soluble vitamins lacking in other fruits, including Vitamins A and B, and median levels of vitamins D and E. It contains different oil levels in the pulp, thus it is widely used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, and for obtaining commercial oils similar to olive oil, because of their similar fatty acid composition. In addition, this fruit has been recognized for its health benefits, especially due to the compounds present in the lipid fraction, such as omega fatty acids, phytosterols, tocopherols, and squalene. Figure 1. Avocado harvesting. Courtesy of Dr Mary Lu Arpaia, University of California, Riverside, CA.  About 349 000 ha are dedicated to the production of avocado in about 60 countries, producing more than 2.6 million tons annually, with average yield of about 7.40 tons per ha. Mexico is the leading producer, accounting for about 36% of the total production, with other important producing countries including the United States (8%), Colombia (5.5%), Indonesia (5%), Dominican Republic (4.3%), Chile (4.2%), Brazil (3.5%) and Israel (3.3%).  Table 8.1 Consumption of Avocado in Different Countries in 1998–2000 Ranking Volume (ton) Country 1 815 749 Mexico 2 228 310 United States 3 128 447 Indonesia 4 127 697 Colombia 5 85 598 Brazil 6 79 298 Dominican Republic 7 79 020 France 8 76 355 Peru 9 63 667 China 10 49 000 Cameroon 11 45 000 Haiti 12 39 145 Venezuela 13 32 662 Chile 14 32 446 Israel 15 32 079 South Africa 2 288 208 World Total Source: FAOSTAT (2002) and Tubello and Piccolo (2001). The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera)  The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the palm tree family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus Cocos. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which botanically is a drupe, not a nut. The name comes from the old Portuguese and Spanish word coco, meaning "head" or "skull", after the three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial features. They are ubiquitous in coastal tropical regions and are a cultural icon of the tropics. Modern genetic studies have identified the center of origin of coconuts as being the region between South West Asia and Melanesia, where it shows greatest genetic diversity. Their cultivation and spread was closely tied to the early migrations of the Austronesian peoples who carried coconuts as canoe plants to islands they settled. The similarities of the local names in the Austronesian region is also cited as evidence that the plant originated in the region.  Botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers: the exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp make up the "husk" of the coconuts. The endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, becoming the edible coconut "flesh“. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp (outermost layer) removed. The mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores (micropyles) or "eyes" that are clearly visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed. A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.4 kg (3.1 lb). It takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce one tonne of copra, The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) Origin of oil palm It is generally agreed that the Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) originated in the tropical rain forest region of West Africa. The main belt runs through the southern latitudes of Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Togo and into the equatorial region of Angola and the Congo. Processing oil palm fruits for edible oil has been practiced in Africa for thousands of years, and the oil produced, highly coloured and flavoured, is an essential ingredient in much of the traditional West African cuisine. The traditional process is simple, but tedious and inefficient. During the 14th to 17th centuries some palm fruits were taken to the Americas and from there to the Far East. The plant appears to have thrived better in the Far East, thus providing the largest commercial production of an economic crop far removed from its centre of origin. Palm oil is rich in carotenoids, (pigments found in plants and animals) from which it derives its deep red colour, and the major component of its glycerides is the saturated fatty acid palmitic; hence it is a viscous semi-solid, even at tropical ambients, and a solid fat in temperate climates. Because of its economic importance as an high-yielding source of edible and technical oils, the oil palm is now grown as a plantation crop in most countries with high rainfall (minimum 1 600 mm/yr) in tropical climates within 10° of the equator. The palm bears its fruit in bunches varying in weight from 10 to 40 kg. The individual fruit, ranging from 6 to 20 gm, are made up of an outer skin (the exocarp), a pulp (mesocarp) containing the palm oil in a fibrous matrix; a central nut consisting of a shell (endocarp); and the kernel, which itself contains an oil, quite different to palm oil, resembling coconut oil. Diagram 1: Structure of the palm fruit  The primary produce of the oil palm are palm oil, palm kernel bake and palm kernel oil. Palm oil is important in the diet of West Africans and is also use for lighting and soap making. It is an important export commodity for the processing of margarine, soap and tin plating. The kernel oil is used for synthesizing edible fats, various industrial uses, soap making and Palm kernel cake for animal feed. When the oil palm is tapped for wine the yield of oil and kernel are reduced. Other products include the thatching of roof, the mats, brooms, ash for soap making, rachis for yam poles, and the wicker poles for houses building. The production of palm oil in Nigeria is probably in excess of 500,000 tonnes, but as most of it is consumed locally, exact figures are not easily obtained. Export has dropped over the years from 200,000 tonnes to a negligible amount. The production is mainly on small native holdings or wild groves, and there are few large estates. Ecology: The oil palm is indigenous to the wet tropics and dies well on fertile soils. In much of Nigeria, it is grown on rather infertile soils, fertilizers being added as required. It requires sunshine of preferably over 1, 500 hours, and a well distributed rainfall of 2,000-3,000 mm per annum and a deep water holding soil. In Nigeria, the reduced sunshine and the four months of dry season inhibits the production of maximum yield potential.  Types and forms: The oil is monoecious, having male and female inflorescences on the same palm. The inflorescences occur in bunched produced at the axils of the palm fronds. Bunched can weigh up to 35kg, but in West Africa averages 9-14kg. The fruit is composed of an outer fleshy mesocarp (pulp) containing the palm oil and surrounding the nut. The nut has a shelf of varying thickness, and within it is the kernel. There are various types of fruits - nigrescens (black), virescens (green), albescens (white) and poissoni (mantled) - but these external characteristics are of no value in assessing the potentials of the palm. Thickness of pericarp, oil content, kernel size and thickness of shell are more important. Three forms of fruits can be distinguished by internal characters: (a) Dura: These fruits have thin pericarp, a thick shell and a large kernel. Firms vary from macrocarpa with a very thick shell and almost no pulp (90% nut, 10% mesocarp) to the Deli Dura, which is 60-65% nut and 40-35% mesocarp. (b) Pisifera: These fruit contain no shell and only sometimes a small kernel. Pisifera female bunches frequently abort, i.e. fail to mature, and are said to be sterile. Pollen from Pisifera is used to cross Dura. (c ) Tenera: These fruit contain much pulp m, little shell and a small kernel. Tenera palms are a mono- facttorial hybrid between the Dura and Pisifera. Thus Tenera crossed with Tenera or welded give 25% Dura, 50% Tenera and 25% Pisifera. Tenera crossed with Dura gives 50% Tenera and 50% Dura. THE END Introduction to value addition, processing and storage of permanent crops HRT 301  Permanent crops Cocoa (Threobroma cacao), Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis), Coconut ( Cocos nucifera) Rubber (Hevea brasilensis) Tea Coffee Cashew Kola  Value addition VALUE addition is the process of increasing the economic value and consumer appeal of a commodity It is a production/ marketing strategy driven by customer needs/preferences Produce is changed from its original form to a more desirable form  Value is added to the particular produce item - When the product is available - When the season is out - When the demand for the product outweighs the supply accessible Cocoa Cashew (Theobroma cacao) (Anacardium occidentalis)  Value added products Kola nuts  Manufacturers using products of permanent crops Nestlé – Cocoa, Coffee Unilever – Palm Oil PZ – Palm Oil Cadbury – Cocoa Michelin, Dunlop – Rubber Lipton – Tea Coca cola, Pepsi -Kola  Processing of plantation crops Conversion/transformation of raw materials harvested from the farm into valuable marketable products  Cocoa processing to Chocolate Cleaning of cocoa beans to remove dirt's/extraneous materials Roasting Winnowing to remove shell from beans Alkalisation of beans with potassium carbonate (to develop flavour and colour) Milling of the nibs Extraction into cocoa liquor (for chocolate)and press cake (for cocoa powder) Kneading Mixture goes through heat, cooling and reheating process Placed in moulds Packaging for distribution  Reasons for processing Add value to produce Job opportunity To reduce postharvest loss To increase marketing options To attract higher market value when compared to unprocessed harvested product  Issues in processing Harvesting at improper maturity Contamination Improper trimming Use of improper processing methods  Processing methods -Curing: e.g cured Kolanuts should be wrapped in green but partially dried leaves - Dehydration - Drying - Fermentation - Juicing - Fermentation e.g Cocoa is fermented. Examples include Heap fermentation, Basket fermentation Sweat box fermentation etc -Drying include Sun-drying, mechanical dryers, movable roof dryers etc  Storage Storage is the art of keeping the quality of agricultural materials and preventing them from deterioration for specific period of time beyond their normal shelf life Classification of storage type are based on the following 1. Duration of storage 2. Size or scale of storage 3. Principle of storage  Bagging Storage e.g for cocoa. The ambient humidity must not exceed 70 % Periodic checking of the moisture content of each lots must be carried out. Postharvest issues with international market Pesticides residues High moisture content in produce Pests and diseases infestation Improper processing method such as curing and fermentation. Use of substandard packaging material for export. E.g Acceptable packaging material for cocoa is hydrocarbon- free bags that preserves quality by reducing humidity. Fraudulent practices e.g farmers add dirty things including sand and pebbles to their cocoa to gain weight  ASSIGNMENT WHY IS NIGERIA COCOA AND KOLANUTS ARE FREQUENTLY REJECTED IN THE INTERNATIONAL MARKET