Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops PDF

HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 e-Contents of FUNDAMENT...

HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 e-Contents of FUNDAMENTALS OF HORTICULTURE & PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF FRUIT CROPS By Dr. B. HEMLA NAIK, M.Sc.(Agri.) in Hort.; PhD (Hort.);PGD (Israel) Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. THIPPESH M.Sc.(Agri.) in Hort.; PhD (Hort.) Associate Professor of Horticulture College of Agriculture, Shimoga 1 UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL SCIENCES, SHIMOGA Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 CONTENTS Lecture # Title Page # 1. Introduction 3-5 2. Importance of horticulture 6-10 3. Scenario of Horticulture - Area, production and EXIM trade in horticulture 11-13 4. Horticultural zones of india and classification of horticultural plants 14-17 5. Nursery - Importance and propagation methods 18-21 6. Planning of orchards establishment and layout systems 22-24 7. Types of orchards 25-27 8. Soil and Climatic for Horticulture Crops 28-32 9. Digging and filling of pits 33-34 10. Orchard management 35-44 11. Water requirements and irrigation methods for horticulture crops 45-48 12. Weed management in orchards 49-51 13. Nutrient management 52-57 14. Training and Pruning 58-62 15. Planting systems and transplanting of horticultural crops 63-64 16. Plant growth regulators 65-69 17. Problem of unfruitfulness 70-75 18. Growth, fruiting habits and methods for inducing fruitfulenss in horticultural crops 76-81 19. Cropping systems in horticulture 82-84 20. Classification of fruits 85-89 CULTIVATION OF 21. Mango 90-94 22. Banana 95-105 23. Citrus 106-115 24. Guava 116-120 25. Grape 121-131 26. Sapota 132-136 27. Papaya 137-143 28. Pineapple 144-148 29. Pomegranate 149-152 30. Fig 153-156 31. Jack fruit, Tamarind and Annona 157-165 2 32. Minor fruit crops - West Indian cherry/Barbados cherry Jamun, Wood apple , 166-182 Mangosteen , Ber, Aonla, Bael and Litchi Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 LECTURE -1 INTRODUCTION  India is the seventh largest country in the world with a total geographical area of 328.73 m ha and has second largest population 121crores (2011), after China.  The total arable land available is 144 million hectare of which 70% is under rainfed cultivation.  Around 55-60 % of the total population depends on agriculture and allied activities.  Horticulture crops constitute a significant portion of total agricultural production in the country.  The term HORTICULTURE is derived from two Latin words - ―HORTUS‖ meaning ‗GARDEN‟ and ―CULTURA‖ meaning ‗CULTIVATION‟.  In ancient days the gardens had protected enclosures with high walls or similar structures surrounding the houses.  The enclosed places were used to grow fruit, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants. Therefore, in original sense “Horticulture refers to cultivation of garden plants within protected enclosures”. Definition: Horticulture is a science and technique of production, processing and merchandizing of fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, plantations, medicinal and aromatic plants. 2. BRANCHES OF HORTICULTURE  Horticulture is a wide field which includes a great variety and diversity of crops.  The science of horticulture can be divided into several branches depending upon the crops it deals with.  Following are the branches of horticulture. i. Pomology : study of fruit crops. ii. Olericulture : cultivation of vegetables. iii. Floriculture : cultivation of flower crops. iv. Plantation crops : cultivation of coconut, arecanut, rubber, coffee, tea, etc. v. Spices crops : cultivation of cardamom, pepper, nutmeg etc. vi. Medicinal and aromatic crops: cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops. vii. Post harvest technology: deals with post harvest handling, grading, packaging, storage processing, value addition, marketing etc, of horticulture crops. viii. Plant propagation : deals with propagation of plants. 3 Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 FRUIT CROPS:  India is the second largest producer of fruits after Brazil.  A large variety of fruit crops are grown in India. Of these, mango, banana, citrus, papaya, guava, pineapple, sapota, jackfruit, litchi, grapes, apple, pear, peach, plum, walnut etc. are the important ones.  India accounts for 10 per cent of the total world production of fruits.  It leads the world in the production of mango, banana, sapota and acid lime besides recording highest productivity in grape.  The leading fruit growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. VEGETABLE CROPS:  More than 40 vegetables belonging to Solanaceaeous, cucurbitaceous, leguminous, cruciferous, root crops and leafy vegetables are grown in Indian tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions.  Important vegetables grown in India are onion, tomato, potato, brinjal, peas, beans, okra, chilli, cabbage, cauliflower, bottle gourd, cucumber, watermelon, carrot, radish etc.  India ranks second in vegetable production next to China w.r.t. area and production contributing 13.38 % to the total world production.  India occupies first position in cauliflower, second in Onion, third in cabbage in the world.  West Bengal, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka are the important states for horticultural crop production. Differences between fruits and vegetables Sl No. Vegetables X Fruits 1. Most of the vegetables are annuals : Fruit plants are perennial in nature 2. Mostly majority of them are sexually : Fruit plant are sexually and asexually propagated propagated 3. Cultivation of vegetable is seasonal and : Fruit plants require special practices like special techniques like pruning and training and pruning and are required training are generally not required seasonally. 4. Vegetable plants are generally non-woody : Fruit plants are generally woody in nature 5. All parts of the plant are edible : Only fruit is edible but sometimes false fruit also edible (eg. Fleshy thalamus of apple) 6. Generally consumed after cooking : Mostly consumed raw after ripening FLORICULTURE:  In India, flower cultivation is being practiced since ages.  It is an important/integral part of socio-cultural and religious life of Indian people. 4  It has taken a shape of industry in recent years.  India is known for growing traditional flowers such as jasmine, marigold, chrysanthemum, tuberose, crossandra, aster, etc. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15  Commercial cultivation of cut flowers like, rose, orchids, gladiolus, carnation, anthurium, gerbera is also being done.  The important flower growing states are Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Sikkim, Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya, etc. PLANTATION CROPS:  This is one of the important sectors contributing about Rs.7,500 crores of export earnings.  The major plantation crops include coconut, arecanut, oil palm, cashew, tea coffee, rubber cocoa, betel vine, vanilla etc.  The leading states are Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa, Assam etc. SPICES:  They constitute an important group of horticulture crops and are defined as vegetable products or mixture thereof,  Free from extraneous matter used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foods.  India is known as home of spices producing a wide variety of spices like black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, chilli, Coriander etc.  Major spice producing states are Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu etc. MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS:  India has diverse collection of medicinal and aromatic plants species distributed throughout the country.  It has more than 9,500 species with medicinal properties.  Demand for these crops is increasing progressively in both domestic and export markets.  Important medicinal plants are Isabgol, Senna, Opium poppy, Periwinkle, Coleus, Ashwagandha, etc. and aromatic plants are Japanese mint, Lemon grass, Citronella, Davana, Patchouli etc FEATURES OF HORTICULTURE IN GENERAL Horticultural produces are mostly utilized in the fresh state and are highly perishable nature. Horticultural crops need intensive cultivation, requires large input of capital, labour and technology per unit area. Cultural operations like propagation, training, pruning and harvesting are skilled and specific to horticultural crops. Horticultural produce are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and alkaloids. Aesthetic satisfaction is an exclusive phenomenon to horticultural science. 5 @@@@@ Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Lecture No.: 2 IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURE  Fruit crops cover an area of 4.96 m ha and vegetable crops 6.75 m ha. Accordingly, 49.29 m.ton of fruits and 101.43 m ton of vegetables are produced in the country annually (Indian Horticulture Database, 2005).  To meet out the projected demand of population by 2020 AD about 50 mt of fruits and 143 m tons of vegetables would be required. Therefore by 2020 A.D. the production of fruits needs to be increased.  Requirements of export and processing industry further add to the requirements of horticultural produce.  In view of these, there is lot of scope of increasing production and potentiality of horticulture crops.  Apart from fruits and vegetables, floriculture industry in India comprising of florist trade, nursery plants, potted plants, seed and bulb products is being observed as sunrise industry.  There is roaring business of flowers in almost all metropolitan cities of the different states.  The developed flower market in the country during 2005 is with area of 2.24 lakh ha with a production of 6.54 lakh MT loose flowers and 19,515 lakh cut flowers.  The traditional flowers are grown on a large area on a commercial scale. These flowers are mostly grown for loose flower purpose.  Area under cut flowers like rose, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, carnation and orchids is increasing day by day.  Plantation crops are another potential sector with lot of opportunities for employment generation, foreign exchange earnings and overall supporting livelihood sustenance of mankind at large.  These plantaion crops form the mainstay of lively hood in coastal areas of the country where predominating stands of plantation crops are found.  Coconut has so much importance in the country that the state Kerala receives its very name on the basis of coconut, the Malayalam name of which is Kera. These cover an area of 31.02 lakh ha with a production of 131.60 lakh MT. Horticulture is important due to the following considerations: 1. As a source of variability in produce. 2. As a source of nutrients, vitamins, minerals, flavour, aroma, alkaloids, oleoresins, fibre, etc. 3. As a source of medicine. 4. As an economic proposition as they give higher returns per unit area in terms of energy, money, job, etc. 5. Employment generation - fruit crops requires 860 man days/annum as against 143 man days/annum for cereal crops where as the crops like grapes, banana and pineapple needs 1000- 2500 man days per annum. 6. Effective utilization of waste land through cultivation of hardy fruits and medicinal plants. 6 7. As a substitute for family income being the component of home garden/ kitchen garden. 8. As a foreign exchange earner, has higher share compare to agriculture crops. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 9. As an input for industry being amenable to processing, especially fruit and vegetable preservation industry. 10. Aesthetic consideration and protection of the environment. 11. Religious significance in the country.  In short and sweet horticulture supplies quality food for health and mind, more calories per unit area, develops better resources and yields higher returns per unit area.  It also enhances land value and creates better purchasing power for those who are engaged in this industry. Therefore, horticulture is important for health, wealth, hygiene and happiness. SCOPE OF HORTICULTURE  Like any other things, scope of horticulture depends on incentive it has for the farmers, adaptability of the crops, necessity and facilities for future growth through inputs availability and infrastructure for the distribution of produce/marketing etc. 1. Incentive for the farmer:  The biggest incentive for the farmer is money.  Horticultural crops provide more returns in terms of per unit area of production, export value, value addition compared to agricultural crops. 2. Adaptability:  India is bestowed with a great variety of climatic and edaphic conditions as we have climates varying from tropical, subtropical, temperate and within these humid, semi-arid, arid, frost free temperate etc.  Likewise we have soils from loam, alluvial, laterite, medium black, rocky shallow, heavy black, sandy etc., and thus a large number of crops can be accommodated with very high level of adaptability. Thus, there is lot of scope for horticultural crops. 3. Necessity:  After having achieved the self sufficiency in food, nutritional security for the people of the country has become the point of consideration/priority.  To meet the nutritional requirement in terms of vitamins and minerals horticulture crops are to be grown in sufficient quantities to provide a bare minimum of 85 g of fruits and 200 g of vegetables per head per day with a population of above 120 crores.  Good land is under pressure for stable food, industry, housing, roads and infrastructure due to population explosion and only wasteland had to be efficiently utilized where cultivation of annuals is a gamble due to restricted root zone and their susceptibility of abiotic stress. These lands can be best utilized to cultivate hardy horticultural crops like fruits and medicinal plants.  At present our share in international trade of horticultural commodities is less than one per cent of total trade. Moreover, these commodities (spices, coffee, tea etc.,) fetch 10-20 times more foreign exchange per unit weight than cereals and therefore, taking advantage of globalization of trade, nearness of big market and the size of production, our country should 7 greatly involve in international trade which would provide scope for growth. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 4. Export value:  Among fresh fruits-mangoes and grapes; in vegetables- onion and potato; among flowers, roses; among plantation - cashewnut, tea , coffee, coconut, arecanut, and spice crops like black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, chillies, etc., constitute the bulk of the export basket.  European and gulf countries are major importer of horticultural produce. Major countries for export of horticultural produce from India Sl.No. Commodity Major importer Share value (%) 1 Fruits and vegetables United Arab Emirates 28.00 2 Flower crops U.S.A 37.70 3 Processed products Soviet Union countries 14.60 4 Spices U.S.A 43.50 5 Cashew U.S.A 40.00  In the recent past communication and transport system have improved, investment in food industry has increased which will support growth of horticulture through quick deliverance and avoidance of waste. Reasons for scope of Horticulture in India are: 1. To exploit the great variability of agro climatic conditions in the country. 2. To meet the need for fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, beverages in relation to population growth based on minimum nutritional security and for other needs. 3. To meet the requirement of processing industry. 4. To substitute import and increase export. 5. To improve the economic conditions of the farmers and to engage more labourers to avoid the problem of unemployment. 6. To protect environment. Other importance: 1. Similar to forest trees these horticultural trees will maintain the ecosphere. 2. They help in transforming the micro climate. 3. Provides shelter to birds, reptiles and other micro organisms and add to the geo-ecological diversity on the land. 4. Provides thrust to the writers, poets, thinkers and analysts there by keeps their cultural impulse alive. 5. Adds to the survival of life-spheres of living entity. Horticultural crops and Human Nutrition:  Fruits and vegetables play an important role in balanced diet. 8  These provide not only energy rich food but also provide vital protective nutrients/elements and vitamins.  Comparatively fruits and vegetables are the cheapest source of natural nutritive foods. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15  Since most of Indians are vegetarians, the incorporation of horticulture produce in daily diet is essential for good health.  Realizing the worth of fruits and vegetables in human health, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommended the use of 120g fruits and 280 g vegetables per capita per day.  With the growing awareness and inclination towards vegetarianism worldwide the horticulture crops are gaining tremendous importance. Functions of fruits and vegetables in human body: 1. Fruits and vegetables provide palatability/ taste, 2. Improves appetite and provides fibre to overcome constipation. 3. They neutralize the acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty acids. 4. They improve the general immunity of human body against diseases, deficiencies etc. 5. They are the important source of vitamins and minerals for used in several bio-chemical reactions occur in body. 6. Fruits and vegetables provide higher energy value per unit area compared to cereals. Some of the essential nutrients provided by different fruits are: Vitamins/ Role in human body Source Minerals Vitamin-A Mango, Papaya, Persimon, Dates, Jack 1. Essential for growth and fruit, Walnut, Oranges, Passion fruit, reproduction. Loquât etc. 2. Helps in resistance to infections, increases longevity and decreases Coriander leaves, Drumstic leaves, senility. Fenugreek leaves etc. 3. Deficiency causes, night blindness, xeropthalmia, retardation in growth, roughness in skin, formation of stones in kidney. 1. For maintaining good appetite and Vitamin – B1 Walnut, Apricot, Apple, Banana, normal digestion. Grapefruit, Plum and Almond 2. Necessary for growth, fertility, lactation and for normal functioning Chillies, Colocasia leaves, Tomato, etc. of nervous system. 3. Deficiency causes beri-beri, paralysis, loss the sensitivity of skin, enlargement of heart, loss of appetite and fall in body temperature. Vitamin – B2 1. Important for growth, health of skin Bael, Papaya, Litchi, Pomegranate, Wood and for respiration in poorly apple and Pineapple. vascularised tissue such as the cornea. Amaranthus, Fenugreek leaves etc 2. Deficiency causes pellagra and alopecia, loss of appetite, loss of weight, sore throat, and development 9 of cataract, swollen nose and baldness. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Vitamin – C 1. Deficiency causes scurvy, pain in Barbados cherry, Aonla, Guava, Lime, joints, swelling of limbs, Lemon, Sweet oranges, Ber, Pineapple unhealthy gums, tooth decay, and Pear. delay in wound healing and rheumatism. Chillies, Tomato, Coriander leaves, Drumstick leaves etc. Fat Walnut, Almond, Avocado Fibre Guava, Pomegranate, Aonla, Grape, Amaranth, Mustard, Beet leaf, Spinach etc. Minerals are essential for the growth and development for the human body: Minerals Deficiency causes Sources 1. Calcium Causes Rickets, Sitaphal, Ramphal, Fig, Phalsa, Citrus, Sapota, Osteomalacia. Grapes, West Indian Cherry etc. Curry leaves, Amarantus, Radish leaves, Fenugreek leaves ete 2. Phosphorous Essential for cell Wood apple, Avocado, Dates, Pomegranate and multiplication of bones and Grape raisins. soft tissues. Helps in liberation of energy on oxidation of carbohydrates. 3. Proteins Important for body growth, West Indian cherry, Avocado, Custrad Apple, formation and maintenance Banana, Apricot, Guava, Grapes etc., of body tissues Peas, cowpea, Bean etc.. 4. Iron Act as oxygen carrier in the Karonda, Date palm, Grape raisins, West Indian body. Cherry, Guava, Sitaphal, Avocado, Sapota, plum etc. Amarantus tender, Coriander leaves etc.  Fruits are also a good source of energy. Eg. Avocado, Olive etc.,  Fruits are also a good source of enzymes which are helpful in metabolic activities leading to proper digestion of food. Eg. Jamun and Papaya.  All fruits have one or the other medicinal value.  They should be eaten in adequate quantity.  Regular consumption of fruits reduces obesity, maintain health and increase the longevity of life.  Fruits are attractive in appearance, delicious in taste and easily digestible. Therefore, they are liked by young and old alike. @@@@ 10 Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Lecture No.3 SCENARIO OF HORTICULTURE {Area, Production and Export –Import (EXIM) Trade}  India is one of the leading producers of horticultural crops in the Globe.  Horticultural crops cover 13.08 % of the total area under agriculture and contribute to about 28 % of the GDP.  These crops accounts for 37 % of the total exports of agricultural commodities.  Due to planned emphasis laid on horticulture, India is accredited as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables,  India is the largest producer and consumer of cashew nut, tea and spices.  Third largest producer of coconut.  Fourth largest producer and consumer of rubber.  Sixth largest producer of coffee in the world.  India exports fruits, vegetables, processed products, flowers, seeds and planting materials, spices, cashew nut, tea, coffee etc.  During 2005-06, the value of export material was worth Rs.1, 24,175 million. During the year, export of cashew nut was dominantly higher followed by spices, tea and coffee. Fruits:  India is the largest producer of mango, banana, grape and litchi. However, the bulk of the production is consumed domestically.  Of the total global exports for fruits, India‗s share is only 0.3%.  Fruits accounts for about 11% of total horticultural export from country.  Grape and mango together constitute 60% of India‘s exports of fresh fruits.  Citrus, banana, apple and papaya are other important fruits for export. Vegetables:  During the year 2005-06, the export of fresh vegetables was of the order of Rs 919.8 crore.  Onion accounts for maximum share in exports trade.  Other major vegetables are tomato, potato, bean, pea, mushroom, asparagus, capsicum and okra. Floriculture:  In floriculture, cut flowers alone account of 86% of the total trade in this sector.  Dried flowers and other plant parts are other prominent commodities. Processed products:  Of the total horticultural trade, processed fruits and vegetables account for 20% and 17% respectively.  Among the processed fruits, fruits juice and dried fruits contribute to 41% and 12% of trade 11 respectively.  Mango pulp, pickles and chutneys of various fruits remain in high demand in export trade.  Among processed vegetables, mushrooms, gherkins, dehydrated onion and frozen pre-cut vegetables are important items. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Spices:  World trade in spices has been estimated of the magnitude of 7.5 lakh metric tonnes valued at Rs 1650 million US$.  Indian spices command 43% share in volume and 31% in value of the world trade (2005-06).  These commodities account for more than 5% of the total agricultural export earnings in the country.  Value added spices are in large demand in export trade and their share is 60% of total export under spices. Seeds and planting materials:  The country exports seed and planting materials of fruits and vegetables.  The export of these commodities was of the order of Rs.63 crores during the year 2004-05 Medicinal and aromatic plants:  The country has its credits of exporting herbal material raw drugs to world market.  Before 2005, Indian export of herbal material was worth Rs. 446 crore.  China export in this regard has been worked out of the tune of Rs.18, 000-22,000 crore. Aloe veera, belladonna, acrus, cinchona, Cassia tora, dioscorea, senna, isbgol, etc., hold prominence in export trade under the sector. Cashew nut:  During the year 2004-05, cashew nut kernels worth Rs.2709 crore were exported.  At present, the country exports about 1.27 lakh metric tonnes of cashew kernels worth Rs. 2500 crore. Tea:  Until 1987-88, India was dominant exporter of tea in the world market.  The share of tea in total agricultural export was 20.7%.  In view of stiff competition from Sri Lanka, Kenya, China tea export from the country has been divided down.  At present share of tea in total agricultural export has been merely 5%. Coffee:  After petroleum, coffee is the second largest commodity in the world trade. From India, 70% of the total production of coffee is exported. Coconut:  The recent trends in the exports of coconut products witness decrease in export of copra and copra meal.  There has been moderate increase in coconut oil, desiccated coconut and shell charcoal while  There is significant increase in coco chemicals, activated carbon, coir and coir products.  Coir and coir products are major coconut based commodities in the export basket. Rubber:  The country exports natural rubber.  Under this sector, it accounts for 1.1% of the global share.  The export of natural rubber rose from 6995 metric tonnes in 2001-02 to 75,905 metric tonnes during 2003-04. Cocoa: 12  India exports cocoa products.  During the year 2005-06, India earned foreign exchange worth Rs.24.80 crore out of export of cocoa beans/products. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Imports  There is rise in the imports of certain commodities.  Commodities like dried pea, apples, apple juice, dried vegetable, black pepper, raw cashew nut, areca nut, cocoa etc., are important items imports by India.  In spice sector, India is leading producer but bulk of its production is utilized domestically itself.  In cashew nut production scenario, the country produces 5.4 lakh tonnes of raw cashew nuts, as against the requirement of 11-12 lakh tonnes per annum to feed out 1700 cashew processing units. RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS IN HORTICULTURE 1. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research(IIHR), Bangalore 2. Indian Institute of Vegetable Research(IIVR), Varanashi 3. Indian Institute of Spices Research(IISR), Calicut, Kerala 4. Central Institute of sub-tropical Horticulture(CISH), Lucknow 5. Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture(CITH), Srinagar 6. Central Potato Research Institute(CPRI), Kufri, Shimla 7. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute(CTCRI), Thiruvananthapuram,Kerala 8. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute(CPCRI) Kasargod,Kerala 9. Central Institute of Arid Horticulture(CIAH), Bikaner, Rajasthan 10. Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology(CIPHET), Ferozepur, Punjab 11. ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Ela, Old Goa 12. ICAR Research Complex for North Eastern Hill Region. Barapani, Meghalaya 13. National Research Centre for Banana. Trichirapalli, Tamil Nadu 14. National Research Centre for Citrus, Nagpur, Maharastra 15. National Research Centre for Onion and Garlic, Pune, Maharastra 16. National Research Centre for Grape, Pune, Maharastra 17. National Research Centre for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Anand, Gujarat 18. National Research Centre for Mushroom, Solan 19. National Research Centre for Orchid, Gangtok, Sikkim 20. National Research Centre for Cashew nut, Puttur, Karnataka 21. National Research Centre for Seed Spices, Ajmer, Rajasthan 22. National Research Centre for Oil Palm, Eluru, Andhra Pradesh 23. National Research Centre for Pomegranate, Solapur, Maharastra 24. National Research Centre for Makhana, Patna, Bihar 25. National Research Centre for Litchi, Muzaffarpur, Bihar 26. National Horticulture Board(NHB), Gurgaon, Haryana @@@@@@@@ 13 Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Lecture No.4 HORTICULTURAL ZONES OF INDIA AND CLASSIFICATION OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS  The Indian subcontinent is bestowed with a great variety of climate and soil conditions.  Broadly the country can be divided into Tropical, subtropical and temperate regions.  Within each broad category there are differences due to rainfall, humidity, altitude etc.  Considering these aspects six different horticultural zones have been identified so that appropriate choice of the crops can be made and development is planned. They are; 1. Temperate: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, North Uttaranchal, Sikkim and part of Arunachal Pradesh. 2. N.W. Subtropical: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Central Uttar Pradesh and North M.P. 3. N.E. Subtropical: Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur. 4. Central tropical: South Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal. 5. Southern tropical: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. 6. Coastal tropical humid: Konkan, Goa, Kerala, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.  To exploit the potential of a crop and its sustenance, right choice based on climate and soil is necessary otherwise the management of the crop becomes difficult and the cost of cultivation increases. To be precise, most adaptable crop should be chosen for sustenance. Table 3: Climatic requirements for important fruits of India Mango : Tropical and sub tropical. Citrus : Subtropical but can be grown under temperate conditions. Grapes : Temperate but can be grown under subtropical and tropical conditions. Peaches : Temperate but low chilling varieties can be grown under subtropical conditions. Sapota : Tropical but can be grown under subtropical conditions which are free from frost. Papaya : Tropical and mild subtropical climate. Banana : Tropical, can be grown under subtropical climate provided it is free from hot winds and frost. Almond : Temperate but some low chilling varieties can be grown under subtropical climate. Apple : Temperate but low chilling varieties can also be grown on lower hills.  Climate is one of the important complex factors which influence the fruit production.  Atmospheric conditions include rainfall, humidity, sunshine, wind and other factors.  The fruit growing zones are classified based on the climate factors. FRUIT ZONES ARE: 1. Tropical fruit zone:  This class includes fruit crops which are ever green unable to endure cool temperature but 14 can tolerate warm temperature of about 1000F.  The fruit plants of this zone need strong sunshine warm and humid climate and a very mild winter. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15  They cannot stand against frost.  Areas under this zone include West Bengal, Parts of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan Orissa, Maharastra, AP, Karnataka, TN and Kerala.  Fruits crops: Banana, Pineapple, Sapota, Papaya, Cashew, Pomegranate. 2. Sub- tropical fruit Zone:  This class includes fruit crops intermediate characters to tropical and temperatures.  The summer is hot and dry and winter is less mild.  They may be either deciduous or ever green & are usually able to withstand a low temperature but not the frost.  Some require chilling for flower bud differentiation the fruits grow mostly in plains,  The fruits include Citrus, Grapes, Phalsa, fig, guava, pomegranate, Banana etc.  This fruit zone covers the plains of Punjab, UP, Parts of Bihar, MP, WB, Maharastra, Rajasthan, Karnataka, AP, TN, Kerala, Orissa. etc. 3. Temperate fruit zone:  This class of fruits grows successfully in cold regions where temperature falls below freezing point during winter.  During the cold season, the trees shed their leaves and go into rest period.  For breaking the rest/dormant period, a definite chilling period is required. This chilling temperature helps the plants to put forth new growth, flowering and fruiting with the onset of spring season.  The regions under this zone are J&K, Kuluvally, HP, Parts,  Peaches, Plum, Cherries, Almond, Walnut, Strawberry, Apricot, persimmon, Pecan nut, Kiwi fruit etc. 4. Arid Zone:  The arid zone has an extreme climatic condition, high temperature low humidity, rainfall is very low and its distribution is erratic, poor textured soil.  The area of Rajasthan (62%) and Gujarat (20%) parts of the Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka & Maharashtra  The crops are Phalsa, Date palm, Pomegranate, Ber, Custard apple, Tamarind etc. 5. Semi- arid zone:  This region exhibits low and erratic rainfall, low humidity and high temperature  Fruits of arid region can be cultivated in this zone also Mango, Sapota, Guava, Jack, Avocado, Ber, Pomegranate and Tamarind etc. 15 6. North- Eastern sub-Tropical zone:  All tropical and sub-tropical fruits are grown in this region. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15  The parts are Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Parts of WB and UP etc. 7. North- Western region:  It is again classified into 4 regions; temperate- low winter temperature, dry temperature- highly cold condition, Sub- Temperate- winter temperature & lesser cold, Low hill valley- low winter temperature & lesser cold.  Parts of J&K, HP, hills of UP, South of Punjab and Haryana. 8. Central tropical fruit zone: This region covers Southern parts of MP, Maharastra Orissa, parts AP, WB, Gujarat etc. 9. South tropical fruit zone: Karnataka, TN, Kerala & AP 10. Coastal tropical fruit zone: Kerala, Goa, Diu-Daman, Tripura, Coastal parts of Maharastra, AP, WB, TN, Orissa, Karnataka. 11. Humid zone fruit crops:  This region is characterized by low temperature and high humidity.  The crops are Litchi, Strawberry, Avocado, Mangosteen, Passion fruit etc.  Apart from these fruit zones, India has been classified in to 21 agro ecological regions based on the physiography of soils, bioclimatic types and growing periods. CLASSIFICATION OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS:  India is endowed with rich vegetation wealth with rich diversity of plant wealth.  About 9,500 species of ethno botanical interest have been recorded.  Out of these, more than 50 types of fruits and vegetables, many individual types of spices, plantation crops etc. are under commercial cultivation in different parts of the country, under different sets of growing conditions.  An attempt to deal with all these plants separately becomes tedious, cumbersome and infeasible and more so repetitive.  To avoid these difficulties, it is better to classify the plants in groups, based on similarity or dissimilarity of attributes.  Plants having similarity in either of the traits are placed under one group. Such type of grouping plants in different categories is referred to as classification.  The overall objective of the classification is to systematize the presentation and make the remembrances of the plants easy and convenient.  Generally based on botanical relationship, the plants are classified. 16 Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Different group of plants are classified based on the following criteria: I. FRUITS: II. VEGETABLES 1. Based on nature of growth 1. Based on botanical relationship 2. Based on climatic requirement 2. Based on hardness or temperature 3. Based on continuation of growth tolerance 4. Based on types of fruit 3. Based on tolerance to soil acidity 5. Based on parts used 4. Based on tolerance to salt 6. Based on botanical relationship 5. Based on parts used as food 7. Based on salinity tolerance 6. Based on methods of raising 8. Based on ripening behaviour 7. Based on forcing 9. Based on ethylene evolution 8. Based on rate of respiration 10. Based on bearing habits 9. Based on pigmentation 11. Based on photoperiodic requirement III. FLOWERS IV. SPICES 1. Based on season of growing 1. Based on completion of life cycle 2. Based on colour of flower 2. Based on growth behaviour 3. Based on purpose of growing 3. Based on importance 4. Based on nature of growth 4. Based on part used 5. Based on mode of propagation 5. Based on utility 6. Based on growth behaviour 6. Based on cultural management 7. Based on photoperiodic 7. Based on botanical relationship requirement 8. Based on photoperiodic 8. Based on ability to grow requirement V. PLANTATION CROPS 1. Based on botanical relationship 2. Based on growth behaviour 3. Based on utility 4. Based on extent of growing 5. Based on intensity of cultivation 17 Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Lecture No.5 NURSERY (Importance and Propagation Methods) Nursery is a place where seedling, saplings or any other planting materials are raised, propagated, multiplied and sold out for planting. Importance of Nursery: 1. The young seedlings require special attention during the first few weeks after germination. It is easier and economical to look after the young and tender seedlings growing in nursery bed in a small area than in a large permanent site. 2. Majority of fruit crops are propagated by vegetative means. The propagules require special skill and aftercare before transferring them in the main field. In a controlled condition in nursery all these can be provided successfully by skilled labour. 3. Cuttings are best rooted and grafts are hardened in the mist house chamber which is an integrated part of a nursery. 4. Direct sowing method is not so successful in several crops when compared with transplanting of seedlings raised in nursery. 5. Plants hardened in the nursery are preferred for causality replacement in orchards. 6. Besides these, raising of seedlings or saplings in nursery provides more time for pre-planting operations/preparations. 7. Seasoning/hardening of seedlings against natural odds is only possible in nursery. Classification of nursery: Nursery can be broadly grouped into two on the basis of its site: 1. Home nursery 2.Commercial nursery 1. Home nursery: is the area where planting materials specifically grown or raised only to cater the needs of the growers garden. 2. Commercial nursery: Nurseries are larger in size and collection of plants. This is mainly concerned with economic returns from the investments Factors affecting the establishment of a nursery: 1. Location and site- Topography,climate , reputation of locality for business and transport facility 3 Selection of soil 2. Water facility 3. Manures 4. Availability of labour Components of nursery: A nursery should consist of the following components: 1. Building structures: This includes office, sale counter, packing shed, potting shed, store, implement shed and residential quarter. 18 2. Progeny tree block: The current choice of kind and variety of fruit crops and collection of true to type mother plants have strong bearing on the success and goodwill of a nursery industry. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 3. Propagation structures: structures like green house, glass house, poly house, hot bed, cold frames, lath house, shade house, mist house are used to create congenial condition for the propagation of plants. 4. Nursery bed. Methods of Propagation 1. Sexual Method of Propagation: In this method the plants are raised from seeds. Advantages: For evolution of new varieties through breeding, the hybrids are raised from seed. 1. In some fruit plants like papaya, this is the most popular method of propagation. 2. Seed propagated rootstocks are hardy and develop better root system. 3. Viruses don‘t transmit through seeds, thus mostly the seedlings are free from virus diseases. 4. Occurrence of polyembryony (more than one embryo in seed) in citrus and mango leads to the development of uniform seedlings as in asexual method. Disadvantages 1. Seedlings have a long juvenile period and come into bearing later as compared to asexually raised plants. 2. Due to segregation of characters, the progeny is not true-to-type. 3. It is not economical to handle larger trees, as less number of trees can be accommodated per unit area and the cultural operations are difficult. 2. Asexual Method of Propagation: In this method of propagation the plants are obtained from a vegetative portion of the mother plant instead of seeds. Advantages 1. In some fruit plants like banana, which do not bear seeds, this is the only method of propagation. 2. The plants are generally true-to-type, uniform in growth, yielding capacity and fruit quality. 3. Have short juvenile phase, thus come into bearing earlier than seedling plants. 4. The advantages of rootstocks can be obtained by budding or grafting susceptible varieties on resistant/ tolerant rootstocks. 5. Plants have restricted growth, thus cultural practices and harvesting are easy. Disadvantages 1. New variety cannot be evolved by this method. 2. Plants are not so vigorous and long-lived as the seedling trees. 3. Germplasm conservation requires lot of space and is expensive as compared to storage of seeds. i. Cutting: Cutting is a method of asexual propagation in which plant part such as stem, root or leaf is cut from the parent plant and placed under favourable condition to from roots and shoots thus producing a new independent plant. Advantages 1. It is the cheapest method of asexual method of propagation 19 2. It is used for clonal multiplication of root stocks. Types of cuttings ; Stem cutting ; Root cutting ;Leaf cutting Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 ii. Layering Layering is the development of roots on the stem while it is still attached to the parent plant. The rooted stem is then reached to become a new plant growing on its own roots. Such rooted stem is known as a layer. Stool layering is also used for clonal multiplication. Types layering  Simple layering ;Compound layering; Mound layering ;Air layering iii. Grafting  Grafting is the art of uniting or joining the parts of two independent plants in such a manner that they unite together and develop into a single independent plant.  The part of graft which is to become the shoot system is termed as scion.  The part which is to become the root system is called as root stock. Types of grafting o Approach grafting o Side grafting o Veneer grafting o Epicotyl grafting(Stone grafting ) o Soft wood grafting iv. Budding Budding is also method of grafting wherein only one bud with a piece of bark, and with or without wood, is used as scion material. It is also called as bud grafting. The plant successful union of the stock and bud is also known as ‗buddling‟. Methods of budding  T –Budding (Shield budding); Inverted T-Budding ;Patch Budding;Flute Budding ;Ring Budding; Chip Budding PROPAGATION THROUGH SPECIALIZED VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES There are certain plant modifications which are used for vegetative propagation of plants. These modified plant parts may be stem, root, or leaves and are usually specialized for food storage. Two principal methods are used for propagation of plants by using these modifications. 1. Separation : naturally detachable structures, such as bulbs or corms are separated and planted individually and 2. Division: The plants modification such as rhizomes, tubers etc., are cut into sections to obtain new plants from each section. 1. Bulbs: Bulbs are produced by monocotyledonous plants in which the stem is modified for storage and reproduction. Bulb is a specialized underground organ consisting of a short freshly, usually vertical stem axis bearing at tip apex or growing points and enclosed by thick freshly scales. Bulb scales morphologically are the continuous sheathing leaf base. Growing points develop in the axils of these scales to produce miniature bulbs known as bulbets/ daughter bulbs. These daughter bulbs can be separated from the mother plant at the end of growing season and used as propagating material. 20 Ex: Tulip, Daffodils, Polyanthers (Tuberose), Onion, Garlic, (cloves) Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 2. Tubers: A tuber is the short terminal portion of an underground stem which has become thickened because of accumulation preserved food material eg: Potato. Propagation by tuber can be carried out either by planting the whole tuber or by cutting into sections each containing bud or eyes. 3. Tuberous roots: Certain herbaceous perennials produce thickened roots which contain large amount of stored food. The tuberous roots differ from the tubers in that they lack nodes and internodes. Adventitious buds are present only at stem end or proximal end; fibrous roots are produced towards the distal end. These fleshy roots are separated and used for propagation.  EG: Sweet potato, Dhahlia. Tapioca (Cassava). 4. Rhizomes: The horizontal, thick and fleshy or slender and elongated stem growing underground are known as rhizomes. Rhizomes have nodes and internodes and readily produce adventitious roots. The rhizomes are cut into pieces, each containing vegetative bud and transplanted.  Eg: Banana, Ginger, Ferns, Turmeric, and Cardamom. 5. Corms: A corm is solid underground base of a stem having nodes and internodes and is enclosed by a dry scale like leaves. After flowering one or more corms may develop just above the old one, which disintegrates. In addition several new corms called caramels develop below each new corm. These may be separated and grown for 1-2 years to reach flowering stage.  Eg: Gladiolus, Amor phophallus. 6. Runners: Runners are specialized arial stems (stolones) arising in the leaf axils of plant having rosette crowns. New plants arise from nodes at interval along these runners. From these runners more new runners may arise thus developing natural clonal multiplication methods. The typical runner producing plant is straw berry which is photo sensitive with regard to its runner production. Long days favour runner production where as short days prevent runner formation.  Eg: Strawberry. 7. Suckers: Adventitious shoot from the underground portion of the stem or from their horizontal root systems are known as suckers and when these strike roots, they may be utilized as propagation materials. Well developed suckers are dugout and separated from the mother plant and planted in the nursery for further growth. Suckers are usually treated like rooted layers.  Eg: Pineapple, Chrysanthemum, Curry leaf, Banana. 8. Offsets/ offshoots: An offset is a shoot or thick stem of rosette like appearance arising from the base of the main stem of certain plant such as date palm, pineapple etc.,  Date palm cultivars are propagated vegetative by separating away the offshoots and replanting them.  However these are girdled and layered for about a year prior to separation, because offshoots do not root easily when directly separated from the mother plant and planted in the field. @@@@@ 21 Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Lecture No.6 PRINCIPLES OF ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT  Orchard is a long-term investment and needs lot of planning and expertise.  While planning and planting a new orchard, one should give utmost attention and care to various aspects like, o Selection of location and site, o Nature of soil and subsoil, o Planning of suitable kinds and varieties of fruits, o Proper planting distance and o Purchasing of plants from reliable nurseries. Preparation of land  The land should be cleaned properly for free movement of men and machinery.  All the trees, bushes and creepers should be removed.  The soil of the area designed for growing fruit plants needs thorough preparation.  A virgin land requires a deep ploughing and harrowing.  The land should be repeatedly ploughed and bring the soil to a fine tilth. Layout plan  The marking of position of the plant in the field is referred as layout.  The layout plan of the orchard should be prepared carefully, preferably in consultation with horticultural experts.  The orchard layout plan includes the system of planning provision for orchard paths, roads, water channels and farm building.  A sketch of the proposed orchard should be prepared before the actual planting is taken up. Method of layout  For layingout an orchard, according to square system, a base line is first established and position of the trees is marked along this line by laying wooden stakes in the ground.  Another base line at right angle to the first base line, is then marked along with the other edge of the field with the help of a carpenter square or a cross staff.  The right angle can also be drawn with the help of measuring tape.  One end of this tape is fixed at three metre distance from the corner along the first line and the tape is then stretched along the second base line for a distance of four metre. The diagonal distance between these two points should be five metre.  The wooden stakes are put in the ground at the desired distance along the second line.  All the four rows are thus established and staked. Three men, one putting the peg in the field and others correcting alignment while moving along the base line, can easily stake the whole field.  The marking of position of the plant in the field is called ―layout”. Aims: 1) To provide adequate space to plants. 22 2) To accommodate more number of plants. 3) Easy intercultural operations. 4) System of planting Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 The following are the important systems of planting generally followed on the basis of Agro-climatic conditions to improve aesthetic view of the land. 1. SQUARE SYSTEM It is the most commonly used method and easy to layout in the field. In this system, plant to plant and row to row distance is the same. The plants are at the right angle to each other, every unit of four plants forming a square. This system facilitates the interculture in two directions after the orchard is planted. Advantage: 1) Most easy and popular one. 2) In this row to row and plant to plant distance is kept similar. 3) Plants are exactly at right angle to each other. 4) Interculture operations can be done in both the directions. 5) Adequate space for inter-cultivation of remunerative crops like vegetables. 2. RECTANGULAR SYSTEM In this system, the plot is divided into rectangles instead of squares and trees are planted at the four corners of the rectangle in straight rows running at right angles. Like square system, this system also facilitates the interculture in two directions. The only difference is that in this system more plants can be accommodated in the row keeping more space between the rows. Advantages: 1) Lay out in rectangular shape. 2) More space between row to row. 3) Inter-cultural operations can be done in both the ways. 4) Plants get proper space and sunlight. 3. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM In hexagonal system, the trees are planted in the corners of equilateral triangles. Six trees thus form a hexagon with another tree at its centre. This system, though a little difficult for execution but accommodates 15 percent more plants. Cultivation of land between the tree rows is possible in three directions with this system. This system is generally followed where the land is costly and very fertile with ample provision of irrigation water. Advantages: 1) Accommodates 15 % more plants than the square system. 2) Plants are planted at the corner of equilateral triangle. 3) Six trees are planted making a hexagon. 23 4) The seventh tree is planted in the centre and called septule. 5) This requires fertile land. Disadvantage: Lay out is difficult and cumbersome. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 4. QUINCUNX SYSTEM This system is exactly like the square system but one additional tree is planted in the centre of each square. The number of plants per acre by this system is almost doubled than the square system. Fruit trees like papaya, kinnow, phalsa, guava, peach, plum etc. can be planted as fillers in the permanent trees provides an additional income to the grower in the early life of the orchard. The filler trees are uprooted when the main orchard trees start commercial fruiting. 5. CONTOUR SYSTEM This system is usually followed in the hilly areas with high slopes but it is very much similar to the square/rectangular system. Under such circumstances, the trees may be well planted in lines following the contour of the soil with only a slight slope. Irrigation and cultivation are then practiced only across the slope of the land as this practice reduces the chances of soil erosion. In this system layout is done as in square/rectangular system, first by establishing the base line at the lowest level and then marking for the trees should be done from the base to the top. Bench terraces are used where the slope is greater than 10 per cent. TRIANGULAR SYSTEM 1) In this system, trees are planted as in the square system but the plants in the 2 nd, 4th, 6th and such other alternate rows are planted midway between the 1st, 3rd, 5th and such other alternative rows. This system provides 2) Plants in alternate rows are off set half the space between plants in a row. 3) Result in 9 % fewer plants than square and rectangular system. Eg : Amrapali – 1600 plants / ha. 4. More open space for trees and for intercrop. @@@@ 24 Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 Lecture No.8 TYPES OF ORCHARDS  Orchard refers to an area where intensive cultivation of fruit crops is done. Or  It is an area where fruit crops like mango, citrus, papaya, banana etc. are cultivated. Or  It is an enclosed area where a fruit /group of fruit trees are grown. 1. Orcharding: refers to growing of fruit plants in an orderly manner and maintain them for successive economic returns. 2. Garden: The term garden refers to fruit farm, where sophisticated agro-techniques are employed for commercial cultivation. Eg: Grape garden. Specific crops : 1. Vineyard/vinery—grape garden 2. Pinery- Pineapple 3. Orangery—Orange garden 3. Plantation: refers to a fairly large area where cultivation is done with a particular type of fruit crop. Eg: Mango plantation, apple plantation, coconut plantation etc. 4. Estate: refers to large area (more than 1000 acres) of sole crop cultivation. This terminology was used in earlier days (British Empire). Eg: Coffee estate and Tea estate. Types of Orchards. There are various types of orcharding 1. Orcharding with single variety of a particular fruit crop. 2. Orcharding with different variety of a fruit crop. 3. Mixed orchard with different fruit crops of almost equal life span. 4. Orcharding with intercrops/intercropping. 5. Multistoried orchard. 6. High density orchard. 7. Dry land orchard. 8. Clonal orchards. 9. Homestead plantation 10. Nutrition /Kitchen garden. 1. Orcharding with single variety of a particular fruit crop: Eg: Mango orchard exclusively Alphonso variety. Pomegranate orchard of Kesar variety. Guava orchard of Sardar variety. Advantages: 1. Purity of the variety can be maintained. 2. Convenient for planning and management. 3. All the trees come to harvest at the same time. Disadvantages: 25 1. The variety may be incompatible (which leads to poor fruit set). 2. The variety may be susceptible to pest and diseases. 3. The variety may be irregular like Alphonso variety. 4. The variety may not satisfy all consumers. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 2. Orcharding with different variety of fruit crop: Eg: Mango orchard - Alphonso+ Kesar+Pairi. Sapota orchard - Cricket ball+ Kalipatti. Grape - Thomson seedless+ Sonaka +Sharad seedless. Advantages: 1. If one variety fails for some reasons other variety will give some returns/income. 2. Problem of self incompatibility can be overcome. 3. It can help in supply variety of fruits during different periods and to cater the needs of different customers. Disadvantages: 1. Purity of variety may be affected. 2. Management and harvesting varies. 3. Mixed orchards with different fruits of equal life span. 3. Mixed orchard with different fruit crops of almost equal life span. Eg: Mango+Sapota+Guava. Tamarind+Ber+Annona+Aonla. Fig+Pomegrante+Ber+Lime. Papaya+Banana+Pineapple. Advantages: 1. More than one crop may be available on the same piece of land. 2. If one crop fails other crop will come to rescue and maintains continuity of income. 3. Year round income. Disadvantages: 1. Management becomes very difficult. 2. Problems of pest and diseases. 4. Orcharding with intercrop: This system involves incorporation of another species (fruit/vegetable) in between the interspaces of main crop. This system uses the open space available during pre-bearing period of main crop. The intercropping is discontinued once the main crop completely covers the canopy. The intercrop selected should have the following characters. 1. Should be compatible with main crop in their water, nutrient and soil requirement. 2. Compact stature and should not compete with main crop. 3. Short duration when compared to other perennial crops. 4. Should not act as an alternate host for pest and diseases. Advantages: 1. Helps in getting additional income from the orchard during pre-bearing stage of main crop. 2. It also acts as a cover crop and prevents soil erosion. 3. Suppress the weed growth in open space. 4. Efficient land utilization. Eg: Banana, Papaya, Pineapple, Guava, Phalsa, Fig, Beans, Cowpea, Dolichos, Marigold, Gaillardia, Aster etc. 5. Multistoried orchard: Eg: Coconut+Black pepper+cocoa+pineapple. Arecanut+Vanilla+Banana+Pinapple. 26 The principle involved in multistoried orchard is harvesting light at different height/story. The planting should be such that sunlight is harvested by different crops at different stories/levels/height and there won‘t be any competition for soil nutrients, moisture and sunlight because the spread and distribution of roots at different crop component is distributed in different layers of the soil profile. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 6. High density orchard: High density aims at increasing the productivity per unit area by increasing plant population/unit area by closer spacing. This has been successfully done in several temperate fruit crops like apple, pear, peach etc. where there is availability of dwarfing rootstocks and plant response for training and pruning and chemical regulation of size. Eg : Apple 3x3m : 1111 plants ; 3x2m -1666 plants Limited success of high density is noticed in tropical and subtropical fruit crops because of 1. Non availability of dwarfing rootstocks. 2. Vigorous growth throughout the year. 3. Poor response for training and pruning. High density orchard was tried in mango with dwarfing variety like Amrapali and with the use of dwarfing rootstock like Olur, Vellaikollamban. Different types of high density planting followed in fruit crops: Bush orchard, Pyramid orchard, Tatura trellies, Meadow orchard, Hedge row system etc. Advantages: 1. High returns per unit area. 2. Maximum use of resources. 3. Possibility of adopting mechanization. Disadvantages: 1. Competition in later years. 2. Pest and disease problems. 3. Cultural operation is difficult. 7. Dryland orchard: Growing of fruit plants in drylands like arid and semiarid zones as rainfed crop. This concept is gaining importance as several fruit crops have been identified for cultivation in arid and semi arid regions. Eg: Ber, Aonla, Datepalm, Tamarind, Fig, Phalsa etc. With the advancement of irrigation technology and efficient water harvesting and conservation some of high value fruit crops are also being grown in arid and semiarid/rainfed regions. Eg: Mango, Grape, Pomegranate etc. 8. Clonal orchard: Orchard established from plants derived from single individual mother plants through vegetative means. Eg: Clonal orchard of mango var. Alphonso. Advantages: Plants will be uniform in growth, bearing habit and management practicese 9. Homestead Plantation Plantation is done in the premises of the house/bungalow compound is referred a homestead plantations. It is a system of crop production for diverse uses of family members. Homestead plantation is very common in South-Indian state. Coconut-banana/cocao-turmeric/ginger/cassava/pineapple etc. are planted in available land spaces in house compound @@@@@ 27 Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 LECTURE NO.10 SOIL AND ENVIRONMENT FOR HORTICCULTURE CROPS SOIL:  Soil is the upper most crust of earth surface which supports plant growth.  It is defined as a three phase system in which plants grow. These phases are solid, liquid and gas and are essential. Solid part is frame which provides space for other two. This consists of minerals, clay minerals and organic matter.  The soil is also a living system with millions of microbes that breakdown organic matter and builds it again.  Microbes are essential and survive only when soil is well aerated and rich in organic matter and devoid of waterlogged conditions.  Texture of soil depends on the size of solid particles and classified as gravel, coarse and fine sand, silt and clay.  Soils are classified according to relative distribution of these particles and there are 12 textural classes.  Likewise, arrangement of these particles is referred as structure, and both texture and structure lend soil physical properties like water holding capacity, aeration and bulk density.  Generally loamy soils and crumb structure are most preferred for fruit crops.  According to level of organic matter, soils are classified as mineral soil or organic soil and soil having more than 20% organic matter is organic soil like peat and muck.  Minerals and salts lend chemical properties to the soil like pH, alkalinity, sodicity, salinity and cation exchange capacity which influence the availability of nutrients in soil.  Therefore, for making choice for soil, soil analysis in terms of following criteria is essential to decide on land capability. Criteria for land capability class: i. Slope and erosion hazard. ii. Soil depth. iii. Drainage. iv. Workability. v. Stoniness and rockiness. vi. Water holding capacity. vii. Permeability. viii. Nutrient availability. ix. Fertility status. x. Salinity, alkalinity and acidity hazards.  Based on these criteria there are 8 capability classes, of which (i) to (iv) are suitable for cultivation and (v) to (viii) are not suitable for cultivation.  The soil provides support for the plant and act as storehouse of nutrients and water as well as oxygen for root growth.  The ability of the soil to support plant growth is often referred to as its productive capacity which 28 depends on fertility and physical condition. Therefore, the soil has to be a good soil.  A good soil is one which has the capacity to nourish and sustain plant growth by providing mineral particles (nutrients) in an available form to plants by their interaction with soil air, moisture, microbes and humus. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15  Generally a loam soil is considered to be a good soil.  Generally fruit crops need porous, aerated, deep (2 m) uniformly textured soils and the pH of soil should be within range of 6-8.  Soil with hardpan within 120 cm from surface, soil with high clay content at surface and very less at subsurface or vice-versa are not suitable for fruit crops.  Fruit crops are susceptible to waterlogged condition and growth is adversely affected by salinity, sodicity and alkalinity.  It is, therefore, important that soil be analyzed for its quality and then choice of the crop is made for sustainable production.  If the soils are problematic like poor aeration or drainage, sodicity, alkalinity, acidity and salinity, they require improvement or reclamation before taking up crop production or the venture would fail.  Alternatively tolerant or resistant crops can be choosen for different problems. o Salinity tolerant crops: Kair, Khirni, Woodapple, Date palm, Ber, Aonla, Fig, Sapota etc. o Sodicity tolerant crops: Ber, Tamarind, Woodapple, Date palm, Aonla, Karonda, Fig, Phalsa, Pomegranate, Guava, Bael and almond. o Drought tolerant crops: Ber, Aonla, Ahalsa, Lasoda, Kair, Custard apple, Karonda, Fig, Guava etc. o If we know the soil and the requirement of soil for the crops, then choice of the crop can easily be made. Grouping of fruits according to their tolerance to salinity: a. High salt tolerance : Date palm, Ber and Aonla. b. Medium salt tolerance : Pomegranate, Fig and Grape. c. Low salt tolerance : Apple, Orange, Almond, Lemon and Avocado.  In making choice of soil for fruit crops physical properties should he emphasized, more as chemicals can be added from outside to improve nutrient status and chemical properties of the soil.  Generally the depth and the drainage-ability are very important for crop production.  To upkeep soils for sustainable production following things are to be done before and after planting a crop: Soil analysis in terms of its physical and chemical attributes  Bring the soil to its optimum potential by applying organic matter, chemical fertilizers, micronutrient and amendments depending on soil analysis report.  Adoption of soil conservation technique like green manuring on regular basis.  Use of improved water management techniques like drip irrigation and check basin or Furrows.  Incorporation of large quantity of bulky organic matter each year.  Creation of appropriate drainage around the plot.  Scrapping of salts and reclamation of soil by application of gypsum, iron pyrites, press mud etc., on regular basis in case of salinity problem.  Replenishment of nutrients harvested by the crop on regular basis by preparing a balance sheet for nutrients.  Recycling of organic waste. 29  Soil is the most important natural resource for fruit culture and it needs to be protected and improved. Prepared By Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor & Head (Hort.) cum Coordinator (PPMC) & Dr. D. Thippesh, Professor of Horticulture, CoA Shimoga; [email protected]; 94488 62225 | UAHS, S  HRT. 101: Fundamentals of Horticulture and Production Technology of Fruit Crops; (2+1): I Semester 2014-15 CLIMATE  Climate is the most important factor on which choice of the crop for a region depends and therefore, understanding about soail and climate and their requirement for different crops for optimum production on sustainable basis is important for horticulturists. Climate is defined as the whole of average atmospheric phenomena for a certain region calculated for a period of thirty years. These phenomena are light, heat, water and air. LIGHT:  Electromagnetic radiation to which the organs of plant react ranging in wavelength from 4000 to 7700 angstrom units, and is propagated at a speed of about 540 kilometres per second.  It is essential for the process of photosynthesis and therefore, for growth and development of plants.  There are two aspects of light, its intensity and duration which are important for plant development.  The light intensity can be estimated from the number of hours of bright sunlight or from the cloudiness of sky.  Generally horticultural crops need a lot of light and must be grown in sun