History Lecture Notes PDF

Chapter 21: (Ming and Qing China/Tokugawa Japan) How did China seek stability in Qing & Ming China? Describe China’s development before the 1800’s. How did the arrival of westerners affect China &...

Chapter 21: (Ming and Qing China/Tokugawa Japan) How did China seek stability in Qing & Ming China? Describe China’s development before the 1800’s. How did the arrival of westerners affect China & Japan? How did Japan deal with Christianity/foreign influences? Ming/Qing: ​ Yuan Dynasty: unlucky (Black death/plague, famine) - lost the Mandate of Heaven?, encouraged trade ​ Ming Dynasty: ruling family (300 years) after the Yuan Dynasty (mongols) ​ Zhu Yuanzhang/Taizu/Hongwu Emperor: originally a peasant and mongol, captured Nanjing, claimed Mandate of Heaven after capturing Yangtze River Valley, restored the civil service system and the Confucian scholar-bureacrats, left a legacy of conservatism and cruelty, creating a repressive regime, changed his name → “Taizu”, became Ming Dynasty emperor → “Hongwu Emperor” ​ End of Mongol rule → stabilization and growth in China ​ Taizu grew his army, wanted to relive the government dynamic of Tang & Song Dynasties instead of create a new one ​ Cannons and gunpowder was chinas dominant military force ​ Taizu was known for ending slavery, taxing the wealthy (because of his expensive army), and aiding lower classes, a Confucian bureaucracy opposed him ​ Yongle Emperor: Taizu’s son, obsessed with military power, created the Forbidden City, created large armies to fight Mongols, rebuilt the Great Wall, and sent Zheng He on 7 voyages to the Indian Ocean, widened the grand canal ​ Zheng He: voyager to lands around the Indian Ocean, mission: make contact and build connections which lead to the introduction of trade in Asia, known for commanding the largest fleet of ships in the world ​ Yongle stopped these voyages to avoid foreign influences and increase internal stability ​ Challenges of the Ming Dynasty: rebuilding the Great Wall & Forbidden City, maintaining a large army ($$), fighting mongols and their refusal to pay tribute, rise of Ming Emperors who lacked knowledge, influence of eunchs (castrated males who ran the imperial court), civil service system (mandarins: confucian scholar-bureaucrats who had to study confucian classics to pass the exam) ​ Farming was the backbone of china’s economy → Champa rice caused population growth and built cities ​ Portuguese: “Foriegn Devils” with deadly weapons “lightning sticks”, arrived in China (1500s), viewed as dirty so they were pushed to a trading port in Macao → served as the center for commerce between China and Mexico ​ Spanish trade allowed for Spanish markets (Mexico) to receive Chinese goods (silk, porcelain) and China markets (Phillipines/China) to receive Spanish goods (silver) ​ The city of Manila in the Phillipines became an important route to Mexico, causing it to be the focal point of trade ​ Japanese pirates commonly raided Chinese ships along the coast ​ 1590 (japan): Hideyoshi invaded Korea, China tried to help Korea but it hurt their economy ​ 1600-1640 (china): unlucky, environmental cooling and plagues (Mandate in doubt) ​ Ming elites had too much money, but the poor had heavy taxes ​ War with Spain → shortage of silver ​ Famine in China → refugees looking for homes ​ Li Zicheng: rebel leader against the Ming, took advantage during the famine, enjoyed popular support, captured Bejing and Ming emperor killed himself ​ Manchu: group observing from the North, offered to restore the Ming Dynasty but ended up invading and establishing a new dynasty (Qing Dynasty),  ​ Qing Dynasty: Kangxi Emperor lead the Manchu for 60 years, excellent emperor, wanted to expand and control the government and harmony between Manchu and Chinese, welcomed Catholic Jesuits, lowered taxes and improved government efficiency ​ Tibet came under Chinese protection during the Qing Dynasty ​ Wang Yangming’s most important contributions were in philosophy ​ Confucian officials regarded fiction works as shallow ​ Matteo Ricci: Italian catholic Jesuit and astronomer, studied both catholicism and chinese culture to bring harmony but actually did the opposite and upset both cultures ​ Qianlong: Kangxi’s grandson, emulated Kangxi, White Lotus Rebellion (religious group who wanted to overthrow Manchu rule and promised the Buddha’s return) ​ “Complete Collection of the Four Treasuries” = 36,000 volume compilation of Chinas great works ;ead by Qianlong ​ 1700s: China suppressed Christianity ​ Late 1700’s: Irrigation with water pumps, sowing of seeds, and use of fertilizers contributed to agricultural abundance → led to massive population growth → urban crowding, high crime, soil erosion and flooding ​ China’s family systems were sources of stability, reinforced ancient traditions ​ Hangzhou and Guangzhou: large cites in Ming and Qing dynasties ​ 1800s: Nguyen dynasty came to power in Vietnam Tokugawa Japan Era/Edo Period: ​ Shogun: ruler of Japan ​ Daiymo: regional warlord ​ Sengoku Period: “warring states period”, Oda Nobunga equipped his army with firearms, hoping to conquer his rivals and unify Japan, Hideyoshi finished his job of unification ​ Ashikaga Shogunate: feudal military government in Japan led by the Ashikaga family/Minamoto clan, not a strong government, rise of power among daiymo, fostered economic growth, weakened after the Onin War ​ Toyotomi Hideyoshi: “great unifier”, Japan’s leading general who wanted to restored stability and traditional values, reigned in Kyoto, removed weapons from citizens to stop the civil wars in Japan, gathered the size and yield of the farmlands to improve collection of taxes, became the “Master of Japan”, dream was to conquer Chi ​ Tokugawa Ieyasu: shogun who replaced Hideyoshi, began the Edo Period, The Tokugawa Shogunate from Tokugawa Ieyasu sought to maintain stability by controlling the daimyo and their samurai, and isolating japan from the outside world, a new urban culture emerged, created Alternate Residence (daimyo had to leave their wives and children to live in Edo (Tokyo) for 6 months and then returned to their family) to stabilize Japan, centralized power by making daimyo powerless and reinforcing his own power → created peace, less civil wars ​ Iemitsu: Ieyasu’s grandson, 3rd shogun of Japan, during his reign the Portuguese port (Nagasaki) opened doors to Christianity (introduced by Francis Xavier, appealing to Japanese), western influence, and firearms (became a threat by giving commoners a way to kill valueable samurai) ​ Dutch learning: Nagasaki Port allowed dutch culture to spread (western shipbuilding, weaponry, art, sciences, medicine, music) ​ Samurai’s adopted Jujitsu (form of hand-to-hand combat using holds, blows, and throws to disable an opponent) → no longer focused on warfare ​ Peasants: food providers, high taxes sparking revolts, some peasants owned large farms and some lived in poverty ​ Urban dwellers: thrived with increased trade and growth of cities, became sophisticate ​ Iemitsu outlawed Christianity (God took away his power) and traveling to/from Japan ​ Shimubara Rebellion: no rice → famine, harsh taxes & government, 35,000 were killed → blamed christianity, lead to illegalization of Christianity, Portuguese, Catholics and weapons, closed Japan to western contact  ​ Learning flourished among men, established private schools → promoted artistic/literary works (Haiku: 5/7/5 syllable pattern in poetry) ​ Floating World: Japanese urban amusement areas of play and entertainment for men (theatres, teahouses, festivals) ​ Kabuki: form of Japanese drama with costumed men performing roles with seductive gestures ​ Women had few privileges, worked from home or in cities, servants and entertainment to their husbands and his guests, raised children, had arranged marriages Chapter 22: Southern Asia and the Global Shift in Wealth and Power (1500-1800) How did European contact affect economic and political development in central and eastern Asia? How did the Protestant Reformation figure into European domination of the Indian Ocean trade? How did the Dutch create a modern investment economy based on trade? Why did some nations wish to trade with certain European nations? What was the role of Islam in the declining “Gunpowder Empires” of Safavid Persia, The Ottomans, and Mughal India? European Influence in Indian Ocean Trade ​ Atlantic Trade: when the Europeans moved to the Indian Ocean with trading companies, they connected Atlantic, Mediterranean and Indian ocean trade into a global trading system, wealth flowed from the Indian Ocean through the trading companies and into Europe → led to loss of Southern Asia’s economic power and increased external threats and internal decline ​ Fall of Constantinople & Byzantine (ottoman) Empire (1453) disrupted trade due to it being located on the Silk Road (major trade route between Asia and Europe) ​ Asia’s Market goods: spices, exotic woods, fine silk, cotton cloth, ceramics, and handicrafts ​ India was known for its cotton textiles and dyes (indigo), China was known for porcelains and silk, East Africa was known for ebony, ivory, slaves, and gold ​ Spice Islands: Maluku islands famous for their nutmeg and cloves\ ​ Malabar Coast: coast of commercial trading centers of the Portuguese, Dutch, and British ​ Melaka: regions greatest commercial center connecting the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea ​ European explorations created conflict with Islamic societies, europeans used warhips with cannons mounted on wheels → revolutionized naval warfare ​ Shift from Indian ocean trade to Atlantic trade with the Americas (sugar, silver, tobacco, and coffee) ​ Catholic Portugal claimed the Indian Ocean trade as its own, as did the Protestant English & Dutch along with Catholic French - English and French set their sights on India (cotton), Dutch looked to East Indes ​ Catholic Portuguese and French saw trade as a way to spread their religion (proselytize) and push back Islam, along with establishing trade ​ Protestant English and Calvinist Dutch focused on trade and didn’t think spreading their religion as necessary ​ Fiscal Economic Enterprises: (1600) British East India Company (gave right to trade in India) and Dutch East Indes (1602) ​ Dutch East Indes: (VOC) traded out of Batavia selling pepper, nutmeg, mace, cloves, and received cloth, silver, and ivory, connection to the Amsterdam Stock Exchange (bourse) which allowed commoners to engage in international trade, easy with a great location and economy ○​ Joint-Stock Venture: instead of paying for an entire voyage, people invested in the VOC which paid for the voyage, investors were given shares of stock in the voyage, repaid with an interest payment, if the ship didn’t make it, the loss was spread amongst many, this minimizes the risk for an individual, increasing the gain for the community ​ Ocean voyages were dangerous and expensive for most people  ​ Many people in the Indian Ocean preferred to trade with the Dutch instead of the Portuguese due to differences in culture/religion ​ Mercantilism: system of trade that favors the mother country (encourages colonialism and imperialism), colonizing country sends manufactured goods to the colony who sends back raw materials (tobacco, wood, cotton, etc) to the colonizing country so they can be manufactured and sold back to the colony (“captive market”) ○​ Trading posts ○​ Maintains a balance of specie (precious metals used for currency - silver) for the colonizing country ○​ Mercantilism can work alongside charter companies ​ Charter companies: private veneers protected by direct competiton and supported by a government ​ Rise of Capitalism (encourages competition between individual companies), promised to increase productivity and regulate costs through “natural forces” (supply/demand) ​ Mercantilism, Charter companies, Joint-stock economies and capitalism will lead to the Industrial Revolution ​ Vasco De Gama: 1st european to circumnavigate the African continent and indian ocean in 1498, arrived in Calicut ​ Pedro Alvares Cabral (1502): dropped off 54 Catholic Portuguese merchants in India to set up commercial trade with Portugal, all were murdered due to Cabral’s relatiation of an Arab Ship, he came back and attacked Calicut with his cannons and kills 800 muslims, leading to the king of portugal appointing a viceroy (royal emissary) Dom Afonso d’Albuquerque to protect Portuguese merchants ○​ Dom Afonso d’Albuquerque: devoted Catholic who strongly opposed Islam, fixed the Portuguese trade port (Goa) to have taxes cut in half ○​ 1588: Portuguese and Spanish Catholic Armada (designed to force England to return to Catholicism) fails, reduces Portugal’s ability to trade in the Indian Ocean ​ Goa Inquisition (1560-1820): persecution of Hindus, Muslims, and non-chrisitans by the Catholic Portuguese, first requested by Francis Xavier (Catholic Jesuit) ​ Battle of Swally (1612): One English (Protestant) warship defeated 4 Portuguese (Catholic) ships off the coast of India, Mughal emperor finds out and is impressed, after this he allies with the Protestant English ​ English and Dutch wanted to suppress the Catholic presence ​ British East India Company developed a mercantile relationship with India, but instead of paying with gold, they used British money so they couldn’t use it anywhere else, forcing India to be a “captive market” of the British ○​ Allows British to balance their supply of Gold while controlling India ​ British East India Company opened its own textile mills in Calicut, printed cotton “calico” cloth, fabric become popular as a trade good in the Spice Islands instead of Gold, employed indigenous textile weavers ○​ India’s economy becomes more controlled by the British who profited from their trade and the balance of their gold supply ​ Mughals faced a growing European presence on their shores (Fort St. George near Madras) which showed a growing threat of military domination Gunpowder Empires ​ Mughal Empire: muslim government, hindu majority ○​ Sultan Akbar: tolerant rule, went out of his way to gain popularity with the Hindu majority, including them in government, sought balance and stability, ○​ Sultan Aurangzeb: wanted a Muslim government, removed Hindus and Sikhs which upset them, causing rebellions ○​ Muhammad Shah: returned back to Akbar’s goal of uniting India’s multi-ethnic population (Hindu and Sikhs), used Urdu language to do this, attempted to appease the Maratha people (Hindu) by  allowing them to tax themselves, this failed so he appealed to local princes (nawabs) instead to preserve unity (also failed and Mughal Empire dissolved into independent states) ○​ During his reign, in Persia (Iran), Nadir Shah (persian ruler) attacked the Mughal Empire, pushed out Afgans, and sacked the city of Dehli, left Indian Muslims in a crisis over their religion, this marked the end of Mughal centralized authority ○​ The Peacock Throne (captured by Nadir Shah) is the throne of the Persian Shahs (rulers) ​ France established the French East India Company (1664) in Pondichery, close to British East India Company ​ Events in Europe always affect the colonies, war between Britain and France let to military conflict instead of economic competition in India ​ In 1746, Joseph-Francois Dupleix led a force that captured the British fort at Madras, which was eventually regained ​ In the 7 Years War (1756-1763) Robert Clive from Britain gained Hindu sipport and won a major battle at Plassey, became Dupleix’s rival and conquered France ​ French had to yield its colonies to Britain which allowed the British to dominate India ​ Pantheism: belief that God is present in all things - animate and inanimate (sufis belief), eased the spread of islam across Southeast Asia ​ Melaka became center of Islamic culture (1400s), then captured by the Portuguese and Johore ​ Dutch conquest of Indonesia lead to the introduction of the coffee bean, later nicknamed “java” in europe and america, Dutch supremacy allowed for Islamic expansion ​ Malay Sultanate of Johore and the Javanese kingdom of Mataram (muslim realms) developed into European rivals by 1650 ​ Muslims & Hindus in Southeast Asia: ○​ Muslim Traders: muslims came to southeast asia as commerical partners, did not commit the short of atrocities that embittered Hindus in India ○​ Hindu Conversion: several Hindu rulers converted to Islam to create commerical with Muslim trading networks in the Indian Ocean ○​ Social Equality: southeast asian hindus did not practice the caste system, so Islam’s message of radical equality did not threaten the interests of a Hindu elite ○​ Pantheism and Islam: Islam came to Southeast Asia from Sufi Mystics who practiced a form of pantheism compatible with Hindu beliefs ​ Safavid Persia (Shiite): ○​ Shah Abbas played European countries against each other, allied with British to take the port city of Portugal (Hormuz) to endorse the manufacture of indigenous goods (persian tiles, persian rugs, and persian silks), faced hostility from Ottoman (Sunni) empire and refused trade, this forced him to move Persia’s capital to Isfahan to avoid raids ○​ After his death, Safavids decline along with Ottomans ​ Shah Safi and Shah Abbas II (1642-1666) lacked the political skills of Abbas and began centralizing the Safavid (Persian) government, led to local corruption, confined the princes to the custody of harem, denying them the opportunity to learn important skills for rule, Abbas II lived a luxurious life who had less interest in ruling, imperial power passed to court eunuchs and mother’s of princes ​ Nadir Shah (Persian ruler) took power and sacked Delhi, ended power of Mughal empire SUNNI muslim (unlike majority), failed to unify Sunni and Shi’ites ​ Qajar Dynasty ruled into the 20th century, consolidated power in Isfahan, Shi’ites began to believe in the Twelfth Imam (messanic ruler predicted to emerge to create a global Shi’ite empire that will last until the end of time) ​ Shi’ites demanded a theocratic (religious) government ​ Ottoman Empire:  ○​ Ottoman saw a decline in the 18th century, forces were stopped at Vienna by Polish king (Jan III Sobieski) - last attempt of the Ottomans to invade Europe (1683) ○​ Peace of Karlowitz: (1699) transferred mot of Hungary to the Catholic Hapsburgs of Austria, stopped growth of the Ottoman empire ○​ European capture of Constantinople (1453) developed new trade routes and deprived the Ottomans of revenue ​ In 1696, Russian ruler Peter the Great became an Ottoman enemy, defeats Ottoman’s trade partner (sweden), this makes russia an important power and threat to the Ottomans ​ Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji (1774) gave Russia access to the Black Sea, later the coastline of the Black Sea was occupied by Russia ​ Loss of territory and military defeats threatens the existence of the Ottoman empire ​ A positive part of the empire was the reign of Sultan Selim III, he modernizes the Ottoman military, allowed decentralization of the empire, allowing its natural flexibility to help it survive ​ Wahhabism: puritanical brand of Islam preached by al-Wahhab, rejects western ways and restore traditional islamic practices to preserve and purify their faith Chapter 23: Slave Trade and Absolutism African Societies ​ Family and clans were central to their identity ​ Stateless societies: autonomous clan headed by a family patriarch ​ Mali’s role in the Trans-Saharan Trade contributed to its growth ​ Most Africans lived in cities along coasts and rivers ​ Grasslands were home to rural societies ​ Zimbabwe supplemented its cattle-based wealth with gold mined for sale along Africa’s east coast Slave Trade ​ Trans-Saharan Slave Trade: 15th-18th century, began with the Islamic conquest of North Africa and followed the Portuguese exploration of West Africa and trade in Africa, saw slaves as beneficial source of labor to work on their plantations (extremely large farms - sugar, tobacco or cotton plantations), Britain and Holland followed this pattern, mainly from West Central Africa to Brazil and the Caribbean Islands ​ Slavery: owning a human being as if they are a piece of property or livestock, captured in war, no rights, some privilges, assimilated into their owner’s culture, children of slaves may be accepted into society depending on the owners, some became mistresses ​ Most common form of slavery was domestic servitude with slaves serving in the homes of wealthy families ​ Servile workers seem to have been from a different community than the one they served ​ Ibn Khaldun: wrote that black Africans accepted servile status because they had a “low degree of humanity”, depicting slaves as less than humans ​ Greatest number of slaves were brought to South America by the Spanish and Portuguese to work in mines and plantations ​ Native people were unsuitable for enslavement because they escaped or simply died from weakness or disease ​ French imported 2 million into their sugar plantations in the Caribbean ​ In 1617, 500,000 were brought to North America ​ East African Slave Trade: conducted by Muslims, to Madagascar, India, Saudi Arabia, and more, these slaves were less likely to be used for simple labor and considered to be status symbols of their owner, also had better opportunity for freedom through conversion to Islam (an enslaved woman who gave birth to a child from her owner could be freed with the child) ​ Tropical Islands with sugar plantations: Madeira, Sao Tome and Principe ​ Luanda/Angola became a major trading port and source of slaves  ​ Haiti (San Domigue): valuable French sugar colony in the Caribbean, depended on slave labor to produce raw sugar (VALUEABLE but very dangerous to cultivate), slaves who resisted were severly harmed or killed, 30,000 whites controlled 500,000 slaves by 1800s ​ Middle Passage: main route for slaves across the Atlantic from Africa and New World (Barbedos), slaves were packed tightly for several weeks, many died and were thrown overboard if they tried to rebel, once arrived in port, slaves were marketed/sold, most were men ​ Maroon: runaway slaves who established independent communities, maintaining African customs ​ African Diaspora: people from Africa who were dispersed to other continents and the descendents of those people, created new cultures ​ Triangular Trade/Atlantic Trade: slaves were a major commodity from Africa to North America, North America sold raw materials (sugar, cotton, tobacco) to Europe who sold manufactured goods, rum and textiles back to Africa, trade went in both directions ​ Racism: believing groups of people were inferior to others depending on the color of their skin ​ Life expectancy of Brazilian and French African slaves were less than 2 years ○​ Reasons: disease, dangeous animals, murderous owners, escape attempts, and difficult labor ​ American slaves had a longer life expectancy, the population in American was able to reach a natural increase where most survived long enough to have children ​ United States made slavery from Africa illegal in 1808, although it remained until 1865 ​ Inhumanity in slavery led to revolts in North and South America ​ Portugal outlawed slavery by 1777 (1st) and ended its participation in the slave trade in 1836 ​ France outlawed slavery in 1789 (2nd) ​ Brazil was the last country in the Americas to outlaw slavery (1888) ​ African legacy of the slave trade ○​ some regions were depopulated, weakened, or were left with destroyed cultures ○​ some rulers profited greatly from the slave trade with aquiring weapons and goods ○​ Christian missionaries opened up the Kingdoms of Kongo and Ndongo to the slave trade ○​ Ndongo was captured by the Portuguese in 1683 ○​ Ethiopia successfully resisted European and Muslim enroachment ○​ Diogo Cao: sailed up the Kongo river searching for a waterway connecting the Atlantic and Indian Oceans ○​ Islam provided protections from enslavement ○​ Led to European exploitation of African resources ○​ Racial ideas regarding the Africans led to colonization and subjugation (1800s-1900s) ​ Khoisan: unique set of languages, distinguished by clicking sounds, spoken by indigenous people of Southern Africa ​ The Songhai and Kanem-Bornu empires were both negatively affected by the Trans-Saharan Trade ​ Cassava/Manioc: large hardy root plant from the American tropics, native to Brazil and used as a food staple in Africa ​ Some African societies were matrilineal with children tracing their heritage through their mothers, or matrilocal with married couples living in or near the wife’s family ​ Bridewealth: payment from the groom to the parents of the bride to makeup for the loss of their daughter and assure them he would treat her well African Slavery v.s European Slavery ​ African slavery could happen for several reasons (war, debt, poverty), but European slavery was due to demand for cheap labor ​ African slavery could be overcome, and if a slave could not earn their freedom, its possible that their children could become free and members of society that enslaved them, in European slavery it was far more difficult to earn your freedom, if not impossible ​ African slavery did not have the racial basis that European slavery did, European slavery tended to be hereditary Chapter 24: Absolutism and Enlightenment in Europe ​ Absolutism: political theory or form of government that all power should be controlled by a single ruler; absolute principle, doctrine, or standard ​ French Absolutism: no institution could check the power of the king, which came directly from God, fundamental laws could not be changed ​ In Europe before 1517, political power was in the Catholic Church (had direct relationship with God), reinforced that God favored certain kings who gained more authority ​ In Europe after 1517, the Protestant Reformation challenged the power of the Catholic Church, led to civil wars ​ Henri IV, King of France 1553-1610 ​ French kings were bound by tradition and laws than other kings, but still had great power ​ The Reformation led to french protestants, Hugenots, which contrasted the already Catholic majority in France ​ The French Wars of Religion (1562-1594) led to the Edict of Nantes, promised Hugenots civil rights and protection in France in “places of safety”, victory for King Henri IV who was a Hugenot, he converted to Catholicism but was tolerant to the Hugenots ​ “Places of Safety” became a threat to Hugenots because Protestants created them into bases for rebels, tried to revoke the Edict, led to civil war, “places of safety” were removed from the Edict ​ Louis XIII: Henri IV’s son, Absolutist, he was only 9 so his mother ruled for 4 years, Louis had a protector, Cardinal Richelieu, who inspired him, more devoted to French affairs and tolerance towards Hugenots ​ Richelieu tried to make the king more powerful by removing power from the nobles, known as the “Red Eminence” for his power and red robes, sent royal agents to control local affairs, making more direct contact between the king and the common people, this helped remove power by local nobles, supported development of a large standing army to ensure royal power ​ Louis XIV: Louis XIII son, “Sun King”, became king at 5 years old, mother ruled until he was old enough, most of his power stayed within the regent, Cardinal Jules Mazarin who followed Richelieu, Mazarin was driven into exile when a group of French nobles tried to reclaim the power they lost in Louis XIII reign, the revolt was called the Fronde (1648-1653), cultivated strong hatred toward nobles from Louis XIV and wanted it destroyed to secure his rule ​ Once Mazarin died in 1661, Louis XIV took control of French bureaucracy, restricted power in the nobles and concentrated it in himself (absolutism) ​ Louis XIV was known for ruling longer than any other European monarch in history (72 years), his creation of the Palace of Versailles became a tool to secure royal absolutism, entertainment for 10,000 people including French aristocracy, he used it to spy on them and played the aristocrats against each other ​ In 1685, Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes and forced all Hugenots to convert to Catholicism or leave, laid the groundwork for the French Revolution of 1789 ​ Other examples of Absolutism: Austria and the Hapsburgs ○​ Holy Roman Emperors were elected by local rulers of the states making up the Holy Roman Empire, most were members of the Austrian Hapsburg family ○​ Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Year’s War and Hapsburgs goal of creating a purely Catholic state in Europe ○​ The surrounding non-Catholic nations forced a compromise where Austria was allowed to rule while respecting the traditions and cultures of the two other countries ​ Prussian Absolutism: based on a strong military tradition between the Hohenzollern royal famly and the nobility, the Junkers (given strong control over their peasant population as well as tac exemptions, provided officers for the army) ​ Prussian model created an absolutist state where the royalty and nobility worked together with the nobility controlling the army through officer corps ​ The Peasantry were reduced to the level of serfs who were tied to the land ​ English sought to construct an absolute monarchy like France and Central Europe, but blocked by parliament, created a limited monarchy (nobles and middle classes worked together to restrict their ruler) England and Parliment ​ Elizabeth I left no heirs, very protestant, last Tudor monarch (1603) ​ James IV of Scotland ruled England as James I, first of the Stuart monarchs/dynasty (1603-1625), viewed as a foreign king, his manners and language alienated him from Parliament ​ England’s Parliament: House of Lords (titled aristocrats, power challenged during Elizabeth’s reign) and House of Commons (growing number of merchants and bankers due to the growth of trade) ​ Parliament was a check to absolute royal power, had to be called into session by the monarch, approved new laws and taxes ​ During Charles I’s reign (after James), parliament had a growing number of Calvinists (resented the Anglican church for being too similar to Catholic and obedient to the throne) ​ Charles I infuriated the people of England by ruling without Parliament (“Eleven Years’ Tyranny”), called Parliament back when he needed money to put down a rebellion, in return they agreed but demanded funds and to limit royal power, met every 3 years, Parliament created a list of grievances, Charles demanded the arrest of 5 Parliament leaders and they denied him ​ English Civil War: (1642-1651) Monarchy (Calvinists/Charles I) fought to preserve the supreme authority of the throne vs Parliament (Roundheads) led by Oliver Cromwell, Parliament/Roundheads won in 1646, Charles fled to Scotland but was captured and tried for death ○​ Parliament was whittled down to 60 members → Rump Parliament, convicted Charles of death penalty ○​ Cromwell ended up as the ruler of England for 2 more years, “protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland, dismissed the Rump Parliament, ruled as a military dictator (“Lord Protector”), when he dies England is unsure of what government they should use next ​ Charles II was the son of Charles I but unlike him, was allied with Parliament, supported by the people of England unlike his father, restored the Anglican church as the official religion of England, secretly desired to be Catholic ○​ Test Act (1673) intended to make sure that all political office holders be members of the Anglican Church ​ James II was Charles II brother, Catholic, 51 years old so he left his Protestant daughter Mary (wife of William of Orange) to succeed him, then somehow has a son which threatened England with a succession of Catholic king ​ Glorious Revolution: effort between Parliment and force from the Netherlands to overthrow James II, James II left the throne and left for France ​ William of Orange (Dutch/Netherland King) became king to avoid a Catholic king ○​ King William and Queen Mary created a new relationship where the Parliment was the primary government entity ○​ Parliment passed a Bill of Rights (specified the rights that King William III and Queen Mary were required to endorse as conditions to their rule) Scientific Revolution ​ Renassiance: end of the middle ages, rebirth of arts and humanities, period of intellectual expression ​ Old scientific theories remained as to how Earth and heavens behaved ​ Repeated observations showed objects in the sky did not act in accordance to theory ​ Claudius Ptolemy: royal astrologer (studied the stars) for the court of Egypt, proposed a theory of the movement of heavenly objects  ○​ Ptolemaic Theory was based on Aristotle’s theory of the Earth being the center of the universe and all of the planets and Sun surrounding it, based on the Bible as Earth as the center of creation, became official model for the christian church ○​ This geocentric model (earth-centered model) did not explain the motion of the planets, led to conflict between faith and observation, God was considered incapable of error ○​ Led to study of the planets and their movements (astronomers), people criticized the church and its authority when the math wasn’t making sense ​ Nicolas Copernicus: “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres”, criticized the current theories, his theory was heliocentric (sun-centered) and explained the motion of stars and planets much better, Catholics did not approve ​ Johannes Kepler: Lutheran, used geometry to explain the heavens, teamed with Tycho Brahe and explained the observations of planetary movement by elliptical orbits ​ Rene Descartes: called for creation of a new science based on observation and experimentation, grounded in mathematics, measurement, quantification, formulas and equations, separated science from religion and philosophy ​ Retrograde Motion: backward motion of the planet Mars… ​ Galileo: first to used the telescope to see planets, sun, moon, subscribed to Copernican theory of cosmos, got in trouble with Catholic church, excommunicated from the Church but his work inspired others ​ Isaac Newton: physicist and mathematician who experimented with light and optics, “Principia Mathematica”: book on his laws of motion, considered a magician, fascinated with alchemy (metals transformed to gold - turn human into God), realized there was a force of the objects in the sky - “gravity” which became known as the mechanism that moves the universe/heavens ​ Scientific Revolution was the result of observation, reason and experimentation, led to the quantification of the natural world, presented a challenge to the church, discovery of the laws of planetary motion, led to philosophers who looked towards man and discovering who we are Enlightenment ​ Enlightenment: European intellectual movement inspired by faith in human reason ​ Humanism: philosophies that humans are all capable of independent thought and action, humans are initially “good” - opposed the church’s belief ​ John Locke: argued that before birth people's minds are blank slates (Tabula Rasa) and humans are products of their experiences and learning, “Essay Concerning Human Understanding”, focused on innate rights in relation to nature, to God, and government ​ Thomas Hobbes: argued for royal absolutism, felt that people were uncivilized and only an absolute monarchy to control them, believed the king must rule to preserve public order in society (a social contract), hoped to avoid chaos like Charles I execution = regicide (killing a king), “Leviathan” ​ Deism (rational religion that viewed God as a master or “great watchmakers” who created the universe as a machine, and left it to run its own course, believe he does not perform miracles and does not interfere with the universe, influenced by the idea that individuals have control of their own lives, argued against miracles ​ Philosophes: any of the French thinkers who dominated the enlightenments in the 18th century, believed in reason and progress ○​ Baron Montesquieu: French aristocrat who published “The Spirit of Laws” where he concluded that there was no ideal system, believed no system was ideal, balanced power with a mix or monarchy and aristocracy (“perfect form of government”) ○​ Voltaire: Englightenment’s dominant figure, promoted the perceptions of Descartes, Newton and Locke, advocate of tolerance and freedom, critic of French Monarchy and the Catholic Church, wanted to spread knowledge and combat injustice ○​ Jean-Jaques Rousseau: believed people were inherently good, and that corruption was influenced by society, “The Social Contract” argued for a contract between all members of society, stressing common good and general will, “private property” was the root of most problems, ​ Physiocrats: French economic thinkers of the Enlightenment who were convinced that increased production and trade would enhance national wealth ○​ Francois Quesnay and Anne Robert Turgot proposed “laissez-faire” = “hands off” governments that should not intervene in economic affairs ○​ Adam Smith: Scottish economic philosopher, “The Wealth of Nations” wrote that natural market forces should be allowed to influence material production, ​ Enlightenment inspired the concept that women should have equal rights with men, Rousseau disagreed ​ Salon: gathering where eminent thinkers and writers mingled with political and social leaders ​ Some women rejected the patriarchal rules of their male dominated society (Lady Mary Wortley Montagu refused to have an arranged marriage and Mary Wollstonecraft was a champion of sexual freedom and liberation from male domination) ​ Enlightened Absolutism: a concept of government where rulers sought to justify their power by reason rather than religion and to better the lives of their people through progressive reforms ​ Prime Minister: the same person exercises both legislative and executive authority by serving as a leader of both Parliment and the royal government Russia’s Quest for Identity ​ Russia accepted Eastern Orthodox Christianity in the 10th century, development of Roman Catholicism, Mongols established the Khanate of the Golden Horde in 1230-1240, Russia’s center was Kiev ​ Roman Catholicsm vs Eastern Orthodox: ​ Caesaropapism: gave the ruler both political and religious authority ​ Ivan I: (1325-1340) moved the center of Russian religious life to Moscow, at the heart was Kremlin fortified area which withstood repeated attacks, housed churches, palaces and government headquarters (1380), persuaded Russia’s metropolitan (head bishop of the Russian orthodox church) to settle in Moscow ​ Ivan III: known for ending Mongol presence in Russia (1480), refused to pay tribute to the Mongols so they left ○​ gives himself the title of “Tsar” (Short for Caesar = symbolic connection to Rome) ○​ believed Moscow was the “Third Rome” (after constantinople) ○​ Sought support from warrior noble families called boyars, in return the boyars were granted extra privileges and lands if they would control the peasant and the serf population ​ Ivan IV: “the Terrible” most infamous ruler of Russia, resented actions of powerful boyars, made several improvements to his government and military, expanded russian territory which removed most of the Mongol influence, crowned tsar at 16 when he marries a woman from the boyar Romanov family (Anastasia), built a cathedral in Moscow in honor of virgin mary (Saint Basil’s Cathedral), Anastasia died  and made him paranoid, started murdering all of his suspects who may have had a role in his wife’s death, beat his son to death, this tore Russia apart (armies and wars) - called Time of Troubles ​ Feodor I: “Feodor the Bell Ringer” for ringing all the church bells in town, Boris Godunov ran most of Moscow’s affairs and regained past land, Feodor’s half brother (Dmitri) was murdered, Godunov was accused because he wanted the throne, Godunov was elected tsar but it was a disaster (famine, bad wars, etc), Russians believed it was a punishment from God ​ False Dmitri I: came from Poland, convinced people that he was Dmitri to lead, when he marries, Russians brutally kill him ​ Power was left in the hands of nobles and boyars, Micheal Romanov … ​ Romanov family ruled Russia until Micheal’s father dies ​ Micheal’s son, Alexis I, was a competent tsar and kind, had issues with Poland and Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Nikon changed many religious rituals, this caused outrage and riots from Old Believers ​ Serfdom was a social institution that became a hallmark of Russian life, became restricted and not allowed to keep their land or leave ○​ Collective liability made an entire population punished/liable for individual offenses, ○​ life of serfs depended on the whim of the landlord who controlled the serfs (could be rape or physical punishment), somehow led to a sense of community among the serfs ○​ Tied to Russian Orthodox Church, refuge from their hardships, strengthened their ties to the state/tsar, Russian Orthodox ascetics known as Holy Fools (street preachers) lived in cities, church banished them ​ Cossacks: Russians who moved away from control of Muscovy and serfdom, relocated to Caspian and Black sea, fostered many connections, independent people, explored western North America ○​ Treaty of Nerchinsk: established a border and trade between russian and chinese territories Russia and Change in 17th and 18th Century ​ Serfs were still under control of their landlords, but the upper classes (boyars, elites, etc) improved, moved towards culture, literature, philosophy, music, art and more (only impacted upper levels of society), women’s rights improved ​ Tsar Peter I: “Grand Embassy” to Western Europe, caused rapid period of modernization, simplified alphabet, printing press, removal of women of seclusion, created the Russian Navy, moved center from Moscow to Saint Petersburg, called it the “Window on the West”, instituted a service state (required all nobles to serve in either the military or the bureaucracy and replacing the old boyar status with a new noble standing based on government service), imposed a Table of Ranks that promoted officers based on performances rather than heredity ​ Muscovy: realm that ruled Moscow before it became the Russian empire ​ Great Northern War: included both serious defeats and victory for Peter, resulted in Russia creating the Russian Empire, Peter died without naming a successor ​ Elizabeth I: Russian ruler, captivated by Western European culture, arts and fashion, “university of Moscow”, transformed Saint petersburg into cultural center ​ Seven Years War: Elizabeth I died and Peter III (nephew) succeeded the throne, peter withdrew from Prussia and his own army killed him ​ Catherine the Great (Peter III’s wife): renowned for her intelligence, modernized Russia, enlightened absolutist, “Nataz” book on how to lead people in government, banned execution, extended religious tolerance, wanted to re-establish the Byzantine Empire so she forms an alliance with the Hapsburg Empire because of their territory in the Ottoman empire, tried to protect Eastern Orthodox Christians from foreign influence, Pale of Jewish Settlement (where jews lived isolated from the rest of Russia) ​ Potemkin Villages: prosperous Russian settlements that were an illusion, building facades or fronts that give an illusion of a real town ​ Russia became multi ethnic and multi religious empire, but was divided by class, religion and distance ​ Russia also experienced Mongol and Varangian conquest, conflict with Catholic neighbors, and turned towards Western European culture Revolution in the Americas and the Atlantic ​ In England in 16th-17th centuries, nobility and the king owned all of the land ​ British wanted to set up plantations which took land from the Native Americans ​ In 1748, the Virginia Company (Ohio Company of Virginia) was established to expand British territory into areas where the french had been establishing their trading posts ​ Seven Year’s War (French and Indian War): fought between the British, American colonists, Native Americans allies against the French and their Native American Allies, this was a “proxy war” where one or both sides in a conflict use subsitutes to do the actual fighting, the British won the war, result: French were forced out of North America, Louisiana territory was sold by France to Spain, very expensive war causing the British to tax its colonies, altered Europe’s balance of power ​ Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763-1766): Native Ameriacn uprising near the Great Lakes (present day Michigan and Ohio), caused by the mistreatment of the Native Americans, British treated them with contempt as a conquered people, rebellion ended with a peace treaty….. ​ George III of England and Prime Minister George Grenville decided that the American colonies should bear some of the cost of the Seven Years war, Tax stamps on sheets of paper ​ Colonists resented these actions as being oppressive including the Quartering Act (British soldiers were allowed to be occupied in homes) and the Sugar Act (attempt to stop the smuggling of French molasses or sugar) ​ Other acts served to keep the colonies dependent on the British for products, captive markets and Mercantilism ​ Boston Massacre: (1770) 5 colonists killed by British ​ Boston Tea Party: (1773) Colonists board British shio and dumped cargo overboard due to protest against taxes ​ Intolerable Acts: 5 british acts in response to the Boston Tea Party, one act closed the Port of Boston until the tea was paid for ​ Battle of Lexington and Concord, Virginia: (1775) first battle of the American Revolution ​ American Revolution: colonies won because of: capable leadership/generals (benedict arnold, george washington, etc), fighting on their own ground, british were forced to send men and equipment across the ocean, and the war became increasingly unpopular in England ​ United States Consitution: it was UNIQUE because a) the men who wrote the constitution were products of the enlightenment and humanistic philosophies, b) it rejected absolutism by having re-election every 4 years, c) government was broken into 3 parts (executive, legislative and judicial), d) bill of rights was added (insurance against tyranny) this spelled out the rights of the citizen, e) allowed for slavery and the ability to amend the constitution ​ Loyalists: colonists who opposed the revolt against their mother country, supported Britain ​ Battle of Saratoga: (1777) major turning point in the war, American victory against the British French Revolution ​ French Revolution: (1789-1799) end of absolutism and replacement by a government where power would be shared between king and National assembly, basically a civil war, causes: a period of poor harvests and famine, king Louis XVI was incompetent, political system of Versallies was controlling nobilities access to the king (isolated nobility from the people living in a bubble), the “Estate” system: the clergy (1st), the nobility(2nd), the people (3rd), 1st and 2nd were able to overpower the 3rd, and the American war of independence showed the ability of the people to reject the king, 3rd estate declared itself the National Assembly of France (confronted major challenges - france's financial crisis, opposition of catholic clergy, and resistance of a treacherous king) ​ Tennis Court Oath: (1789) pledge taken by representatives in France’s national assembly to not disperse until France had written a constitution, was a revolutionary action ​ Bastille: a fortress and prison in Paris that was stormed by Parisians (commoners) in 1789 who believed it held weapons, marking the beginning of the French Revolution, used to protect Paris from English attack, bloody and gruesome attack (1789) ​ National Assembly stopped the feudal system and the special privileges of the 1st and 2nd estates in 1789 ​ National Assembly created the terms “left wing” and “right wing” ​ “The Rights of Man and the Citizen” ​ “The Declaration of the Rights of Man” ​ March of the Women: (1789) 6,000 hungry French women that forced king Louis XVI to move from Versailles to Paris ​ Assignats: bonds which could be used as money and redeemed after the lands of Catholic churches using them for non religious purposes were sold, led to inflation ​ Sans-culottes: shopkeepers and artisans “without clothes” who wore ordinary trousers instead of the knee breeches worn by nobles ​ Assembly created its first constitution (Constitution of 1791), giving the king absolute veto power and authority to appoint ministers and conduct diplomacy ​ Louis XVI was forced to support the new French constitution making the king a figurehead ruler with little power ​ Marie Antoinette: Louis XVI’s wife, Austrian princess, died by the guillotine (1793) ​ Louis XVI was accused of treason and put on trial by the Paris Convention, executed by a guillotine (1793) ​ Assembly formed committees to run the government, most important was Committee of Public Safety which was a group of officials given broad powers to protect France from enemies foreign and domestic, ○​ enacted a “levee en masse” which created an untrained army but was huge ○​ Maximilien Robespierre was the leader of the committee during the “reign of terror” (1793), “Thermidorian Reaction”: tries to shoot himself and shatters his jaw, eventually executed in the guillotine by the new government ​ Reign of Terror: actions of French revolutionary tribunals in condemning and executing hundreds of thousands of people believed to be opposed to the French Revolution, 40,000 were killed ​ French Consul: styled after the roman government with Napoleon Bonaparte as the “First Among Equals” ​ Napoleon Bonaparte: useful emperor of France (1804), relied on immense brain power rather than noble ancestry, embarked on a series of military expeditions that kept Europe at war ○​ Controlled Italy, the netherlands, and germany under his rule ○​ Crowned himself emperor of the french ○​ Continental System: Napoleon’s insistence that all European countries dominated by France boycott British goods, damaged the British economy but didn’t destroy it ○​ Married the daughter of the Austrian emperor to build ties between Austria and France ○​ Most ambitious campaign was his 1812 action against russia’s Grand army, captured Moscow, “scorched earth policy” (destroying one's own property to deny it to an enemy) ○​ Battle of the Nations in Germany, Napoleon gave up his throne ​ Napoleonic Code: Napoleon's codification of French laws that guaranteed all male citizens equality before the law ​ Congress of Vienna: guided by legitimacy, compensation, balance of power ​ Congress System: ongoing mechanism devised by Prince Metternich to enable Europe’s major powers to hold periodic meetings to preserve order ​ Concordat: treaty granting French Catholics freedom of worship ​ French Revolution was simply a social rebellion due to people struggling to transform French society ​ Haitian (San Domingue): african slaves working in France’s Saint-Domingue sugar plantations, 30,000 whites controlled 500,000 slaves, Saint-Domingue became France’s most profitable colony after the Seven Years War ​ Haitian Revolution: began from lack of freedom and bad conditions of slaves, very violent, inspired by American and French Revolutions, more social than political, racial (pitting black slaves against their white owners), led to the US gaining Louisiana and pushed the antislavery movement in Britain ​ People of color: former slaves and people of mixed racial heritage who were legally free but were treated by whites as socially inferior ​ Toussaint: intelligent former slave, taught to read and write by a Catholic priest, constructed a well-disciplined fighting force of 20,000 slaves, proclaimed a constitution in 1801 (making him governor-general for life and abolishing slavery) ​ Jean Jacques Dessalines: first Haitian emperor, leader of Haiti in the revolution, envious of Toussaint’s power, Haiti was the 2nd colony to break from its mother country (other than US) ​ Atlantic and American Revolutions in Conclusion ​ American Revolution ended with a formation of a stable republic based on representative democracy/popular government ​ Haitian Rebellion was a massive slave rebellion against French control and did not result in a stable government, series of short-lived government ​ French Revolution was against the French king and aristocracy and resulted in a period of extreme bloodshed that only ended with the appearance of a military dictator, in the form of Napoleon Bonaparte