Early China PDF

ACTS 13:47 FOR THIS IS WHAT THE LORD HAS COMMANDED US: “ ‘I HAVE MADE YOU A LIGHT FOR THE GENTILES, THAT YOU MAY BRING SALVATION TO THE ENDS OF THE EARTH.’ ” WORLDLY QUOTE “Those who stand for nothing fall for everything.” Alexander Hamilton The Ming and Qing Dynasties ADDITIONAL SOURC...

ACTS 13:47 FOR THIS IS WHAT THE LORD HAS COMMANDED US: “ ‘I HAVE MADE YOU A LIGHT FOR THE GENTILES, THAT YOU MAY BRING SALVATION TO THE ENDS OF THE EARTH.’ ” WORLDLY QUOTE “Those who stand for nothing fall for everything.” Alexander Hamilton The Ming and Qing Dynasties ADDITIONAL SOURCES Fouraker, L., “Historical Legacy of the Jesuits in China” https://asiasociety.org/Buddhism https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/ming-dynasty https://www.thoughtco.com/the-mandate-of-heaven-195113 CONFUCIUS 551-479 BC Confucius was wealthy, well educated & troubled by the political turmoil he observed- the Zhou dynasty was fighting to gain more power. It was an unstable time with frequent wars. Motivated to ease these problems, he developed a sophisticated moral framework. His teachings would make a huge impact on Chinese culture and government and spread to other areas in Asia. Confucius didn't think he was coming up with original ideas. Instead, he claimed he was a transmitter, promoting ancient Chinese wisdom. For Confucius, the key to an ideal society was in the past. Not a religion but an ideology (what most people call a philosophy). Lives at roughly the same time as the founder of Buddhism. NOT A RELIGION, BUT AN ETHICAL FRAMEWORK Confucius believed that to restore order, societies had to encourage certain virtues, such as loyalty, trustworthiness, and respect of elders. He believed people were capable of attaining these and other virtues through education. By learning history, literature, and philosophy, people could gain insights. They could then apply this knowledge to their private lives and to public political issues. How do you practice virtues, and how do you enforce them in others? Rituals and rules were vital to virtue. It's one thing to you say you're virtuous, but when the whole community adopts rules and practices rituals meant to encourage specific virtues, people are more able to adjust to this ethical life. By living respectful and ethical lives, his followers believed they could become "superior" people. POPULARITY OF CONFUCIANISM Initially, Confucian ideas appealed mostly to commoners. Over time, the ideology gained popularity in political circles becoming the official belief system of the Chinese state. Confucianism played a large role in the educational system. Officials had to master Confucian principles in order to pass the civil service exams for government employment. Therefore, Confucian ideas influenced Chinese government for centuries. TAOISM OR DAOISM An ideology founded in China by Lao Tzu (c. 500 BC) which developed primarily in the rural areas and became the official religion of the country under the Tang Dynasty. It emphasizes doing what is natural and "going with the flow" in accordance with the Tao (or Dao), a cosmic force which flows through all things and binds and releases them. The ideology grew from an observance of the natural world, and developed out of a belief in cosmic balance maintained and regulated by the Tao. There are different varieties of this ideology, but it is considered a religion since it recognizes gods and spirits. THE MANDATE OF HEAVEN: An ancient Chinese philosophical concept which originated during the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC). 1.Heaven grants the emperor the right to rule 2.Since there is only one Heaven, there can only be one emperor at any given time 3.The emperor's virtue determines his right to rule 4.No one dynasty has a permanent right to rule. MANDATE OF HEAVEN Signs that a ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven: peasant uprisings, foreign invasions, drought, famine, floods, & earthquakes. The Mandate justified rebellion against an unjust, tyrannical, or incompetent ruler. If a rebellion was successful in overthrowing the emperor, it was seen as a sign that he had lost the Mandate & the rebel leader had gained it. The Mandate of Heaven did not depend upon royal or even noble birth. A successful rebel leader could become emperor with Heaven's approval, even if he was born a peasant. CHRONOLOGY: CHINA DURING THE EARLY MODERN ERA © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. CHINA- THE LATE MING ERA © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. MING DYNASTY 1368-1644 China’s population doubled to about 200 million. Known for its trade expansion to the outside world that established contact and communication with the West, the Ming Dynasty is also remembered for: Drama/theater literature world-renowned porcelain Roughly coincides with the Italian Renaissance in Europe which began in the late 14 th century. RISE OF THE MING (BRILLIANT) DYNASTY Ming dynasty founder, Zhu Yuanzhang, was born into poverty, and spent part of his youth wandering the country after his parents died following a series of natural disasters centered around the Yellow River. He spent several years begging for a Buddhist monastery, and several more living there, but that life came to an end when a militia burned it down to quell a rebellion. He led a successful rebellion against the ruling Mongols whose strength was decreasing. His victory was a sign of the Mandate of Heaven. In 1356 A.D. Zhu led a successful invasion on the city of Nanjing, which he used as a base to lash out at regional warlords. Zhu then captured Beijing in 1368, destroying the palaces, sending the Mongolian rulers fleeing and announcing the Ming Dynasty. He took the title Hongwu (expansive and martial) RELIGIOUS RITES AND CEREMONIES The new dynasty promoted itself by bringing back ancient religious traditions and fostering elaborate ceremonies that reinforced the majesty and prestige of the emperor. The first Ming emperor’s empire focused on military discipline and respect of authority. If his officials did not kneel before him, he would have them beaten. THE REIGN OF THE HONGWU EMPEROR A centralized administration was established with the emperor at the helm. (pp.560-561) He was a paranoid ruler who used his palace as secret police to root out traitors. In 1380 an investigation (lasting 14 years) resulted in 30,000 executions. His paranoia led to two more large scale investigations that resulted in another 70,000 deaths of government workers including high government officials, guards, & servants. THE IMPERIAL CITY IN BEIJING. DURING THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, THE MING DYNASTY ERECTED AN IMMENSE IMPERIAL CITY ON THE REMNANTS OF THE PALACE OF KUBLAI KHAN IN BEIJING. BECAUSE IT WAS OFF-LIMITS TO COMMONERS, THE COMPOUND WAS KNOWN AS THE FORBIDDEN CITY. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. MING DYNASTY TRADE The Hongwu emperor was succeeded by his 15-year-old grandson, but one of his sons, Chengzu, ignited a civil war to take the throne. From 1405 to 1433, Chengzu expanded the Chinese tribute system to other countries, sending ships to India, the Persian Gulf and the east coast of Africa, pre-dating European efforts. They extracted tribute money. The Chinese were not colonizing. (p.564). By 1557, the tribute system was replaced by maritime trade China exporting silk Allowed for a European presence in the empire China was introduced to non-native foods such as sweet potatoes and peanuts (India). LIMITATIONS ON SEA TRADE Ultimately, the Ming were suspicious of trade with foreigners and had concerns that too much contact with the outside world would undermine the emperor’s authority. Bans on maritime commerce caused tension as private traders continued to ignore bans. The centralized administration was tightly managed by the emperor (or to the extent that management was possible) and so the emperor resented a commerce based on sea trade as he could not control or regulate foreign policies. THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA C.220B.C.; 2,500 MILES THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA Maintenance of the Wall had been inconsistent throughout China’s history. During the Ming Dynasty, it required major repairs. The Mongols were a constant threat to the citizens of Ming China, and the Great Wall was believed to be the most effective defense against invasion. After several clashes, the Mongols captured Emperor Zhengtong in 1449. The Ming government chose to replace the emperor with his half-brother rather than pay a ransom. The government also decided that ensuring the integrity of the Great Wall was the best use of their money to effectively protect the Ming empire from invasion. ACCULTURATION 1406- Ming attacked and established rule over Vietnam. The rule was short-lived but had traumatic impacts on the Vietnamese. In pursuit of acculturation, the Ming built and opened Confucian schools and shines, prohibited old Vietnamese traditions such as tattooing, sent several thousand Vietnamese scholars to China where they were re-educated in classics (Confucius). The educated Vietnamese would then return home (1430s) and served the new court, triggering a seismic shift from Buddhism to Confucianism. Many Buddhist sanctuary & temples, were demolished or reduced to ruins. CHINA AND ITS ENEMIES DURING THE LATE MING ERA © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. THE FALL OF THE MING DYNASTY Ming rule unraveled due to financial burdens that resulted in collapse. Several factors contributed to the financial trouble. The Imperial clan was extensive and paying all the clan’s members became a severe burden. Military campaigns were likewise a drain, with efforts in Korea and Japan doing the worst damage, as well as the constant costs of defending against insurgents, particularly the Mongols. An agricultural disaster, the result of the lowest temperatures ( Little Ice Age), also created hardship. A drop in temperatures resulted in earlier freezes, shortened growing seasons and resulted in poor harvests. (Naturally this was seen as a sign that the emperor no longer had the Mandate). These circumstances lead to famine, which forced starving soldiers to desert their posts and form marauding gangs ravaging the countryside. THE FALL OF THE MING DYNASTY By 1632, gangs of former soldiers were moving east, and the Imperial military was incapable of stopping them. The country was further decimated by flooding, locusts, drought and disease. Rebellion and riots became commonplace. In 1642, a group of rebels destroyed the dikes of the Yellow River and unleashed flooding that killed hundreds of thousands of people. As the social order broke down and smallpox spread, two competing rebel leaders, Li Zicheng and Zhang, took control of separate parts of the country and both declared new dynasties. The last Ming emperor, Chóngzhēn, committed suicide in 1644- he hung himself from a tree in his garden. 1644 The semi-nomadic Manchu people became the ruling Qing (pure) Dynasty. THE QING EMPIRE (EIGHTEENTH CENTURY) © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. QING DYNASTY The Qing Dynasty was the final imperial dynasty in China, lasting from 1644 to 1912. It was an era noted for its initial prosperity and tumultuous final years. RISE OF THE QING Near the end of the Ming Dynasty in 1616, Manchurian forces from northeastern Asia defeated the Ming army and occupied several cities on China’s northern border. A full-scale invasion followed. In 1644, Emperor Shunzhi established the Qing Dynasty. NEW RULERS OF CHINA The Qing dynasty (the Manchu) was from Manchuria: they established their dynasty by force by ousting the Ming. The Manchu maintained their distinct identity and organization throughout their 268-year reign. For example, the Qing court marked itself off from its Chinese subjects in certain religious, linguistic, ritual, and social characteristics, always presenting themselves as outside conquerors. Later rebellions, such as the White Lotus rebellion, were planned to restore traditional Chinese rule. DISCRIMINATION Many new subjects (citizens of Ming China) faced discrimination by the Qing. Men were required to cut their hair in Manchurian fashion or face execution. Intellectuals sometimes criticized new rulers through literature; many were canceled (beheaded). Citizens considered a threat were relocated from the main cities, especially Beijing. Marriage between Manchu and Han (Chinese) was forbidden. SUCCESSION Ming emperors named their oldest, legitimate son as heir whenever possible and forbade any other sons from participating in politics. Qing rulers did not choose their successors in the same way. Qing rulers preferred (in theory) to chose their successors based on merit. They were supposed to keep their choice secret until they were on their deathbeds. Also, since Qing policy forced princes to reside in the capital (Beijing), many princes became involved in politics (unlike the Ming).  The Qing financed their rule by taxing the peasants. Peasants began migrating to areas further from Qing control (like along the borders of the country) and planted crops brought in from the New World (corn, sweet potatoes and Irish potatoes). While the administration relied on the peasantry, they also expanded trade and commerce. POLICIES ON TRADE While initially permitting trade with foreigners in the early years of the dynasty, they later tried to regulate and restrict imports. The Qing also forced tribute pay from Korea, Vietnam, Burma and Nepal. REASONS FOR QING DECLINE The ruling elites boasted that they were outsiders, and distinct from (and superior to), the people they ruled over. This contributed to their downfall. A contribution to the downfall of the Qing were external forces: new Western technologies (the Chinese refused to modernize) and a miscalculation on the part of the Qing of the strength of European (esp. British) and Asian imperialistic (French seeking colonies) ambitions (Opium Wars). Another contributing factor was internal turmoil: a series of rebellions beginning in 1794 with the White Lotus rebellion, and ending with the Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 and Wuchang Uprising of 1911–1912. EMPEROR KANGXI Ruled 61 years, from 1654 to 1722, longest of any Chinese emperor. He oversaw several cultural leaps, including the creation of a dictionary considered the best standardization of the Han language and the funding of surveys to create the most extensive maps of China up to that time. Kangxi also reduced taxes and stifled corruption and governmental excess. He enacted policies that were favorable to farmers and stopped land seizures. He reduced his staff & expenditures significantly. EMPEROR KANGXI. ARGUABLY THE GREATEST RULER IN CHINESE HISTORY, KANGXI (R. 1661-1722) REIGNED DURING THE QING DYNASTY. © 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved. EMPEROR KANGXI Kangxi also squashed military threats, pushing back three Han rebellions and seized Taiwan. Taiwan was a Dutch-controlled island. Kangxi stopped continuous invasion attempts by Russia and brokered the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, which brought a vast area of Siberia into Chinese control, allowing him to stifle rebellion in Mongolia. Potatoes and corn—plants native to the Americas—were introduced as crops during Kangxi’s reign, and food was considered plentiful during that time. Kangxi oversaw an explosion in exports, including cotton, silk, tea and ceramics. THE QIANLONG EMPEROR Qianlong ascended the throne in 1735 and spent 60 years ruling China. Qianlong’s later reign was characterized by his own disinterest in ruling. Qianlong was more preoccupied with artistic pursuits. He published over 42,000 poems, and added his poetry by hand to hundreds of pieces of historical artwork in the palace. Qianlong was also obsessed with preserving Manchu culture and enacted dictionary and genealogy projects to that end. He also believed that sorcerers were targeting Manchurians and created a system of torture to combat that, while also creating a program in which thousands of Chinese books that had any disparagement of Manchurians were destroyed. BENEFITS OF QIANLONG’S RULE OF CHINA Under Emperor Qianlong, the Manchu empire reached its zenith. His military campaigns in the far west extended Qing control over large portions of Tibet and Central Asia. The Chinese heartland enjoyed an extended era of peace and prosperity as the population doubled, farmlands expanded, and commerce flourished. Qianlong cut taxes, encouraged new agriculture methods (crops and equipment), implemented flood-control measures on rivers, and traveled extensively. FOREIGN POLICY His approach to foreign policy was to lavishly welcome foreign diplomats and turn down all their requests. In 1793, the British diplomat Lord Macartney came to the Forbidden City to discuss a trade treaty with the Emperor. He brought gifts such as air guns, a 25-foot clock, hot air balloons, telescopes and a planetarium. The Emperor gave him a note that read: “We have never valued indigenous articles, nor do we have the slightest need of your country's manufactures. Our Celestial Empire possesses all thing in prolific abundance and lacks no product with in its own borders. There is therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce. “ QIANLONG’S DEATH Qianlong died in February 1799, leaving the kingdom apparently prosperous, but in fact riddled with problems that had never been properly solved. After his death, China experienced a long period of decline. MING AND QING EMPERORS Xuande (1425-1435)-Ming Chenghua (1447-1487)- Ming Wanli (1572-1620)-Ming Shunzhi (1638-1661)- Qing Yongzheng (1678-1735)-Qing Jiaqing (1760-1820)-Qing Xianfeng (1850-1861)- Qing XUANDE 1425-1435 CHENGHUA 1464-1487 WANLI 1572-1620 MARCH 1638 – FEBRUARY 1661 Shunzhi 1678-1735 Yongzheng JIAQING 1760-1820 XIANFENG 1850-1861 EARLY MISSIONARIES TO CHINA Perhaps as early as the fourth century a small number of traders entered China along the Silk Road. A small number were Christian. In 635 A.D. a missionary named Alopen (from the area of Syria) arrived in China and translated a Christian book into Chinese. This book stressed the universality of Christianity. It also emphasized that being Christian would not interfere with loyalty to the emperor or love/respect for families. The emperor Taizong, read the work, and tolerated Christianity. Christianity was tolerated until 845 A.D. during the Tang dynasty. Franciscans visited briefly between 1271-1368 and an archbishop was installed in Peking. JESUITS IN CHINA The formative period for missionaries in China was in the last 75 years of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). The main missionaries (Jesuits) presence began with the Portuguese settlement of Macao in 1579 and ended in the 1720s because of combined pressures from the emperor and Rome. There were rarely more than 20 Jesuits in China at one time and they faced cultural, linguistic, and physical (many did not survive the voyage) challenges. They converted more than 200,000 Chinese by 1700. Some Qing emperors were more tolerant than others, especially Kangxi (r.1661- 1722). MATTEO RICCI Italian Jesuit who focused on establishing good relations with the emperor. The Chinese were impressed with the Jesuits who were also scholars. The Chinese appreciated Western gifts (clocks and telescopes) and maps. Jesuits were also knowledgeable about astronomy, mathematics, calculus, and predicting eclipses. This brought them into favor with the emperor and court. OTHER FAMOUS JESUITS Michele Ruggieri and Alessandro Valignano spread Christianity outside the capital. It took them six years to compile the first Portuguese-Chinese dictionary. (1582) They taught the Ten Commandments and the basic teachings of Christianity. TWO-WAY MISSION The European Jesuits provided the West with the first accurate picture of China. The Jesuits were the first to translate the writing of Confucius into European languages. The Jesuits also gave the Chinese translations of scientific treatises and star charts. Ricci wrote a Catechism for the Chinese and in it he accepted some Chinese customs, such as respect for ancestors, that did not conflict with Christian theology. RITES CONTROVERSY Early 1700s, this controversy centered around the acceptance of local customs by missionaries. Franciscan and Dominican missionaries rejected the custom of ancestor “worship” whereas the Jesuits had accepted this as a social custom. Jesuits were accused of being too accommodating. One issue that cost converts was monogamy; all missionaries had insisted on this. The Pope sided with the Dominicans, and the Chinese emperor, fed up with the arguing, decided to expel all missionaries. (1724) BUDDHISM IN CHINA Buddhism originated in the sixth century BC in what is today Nepal. It was brought to China by Buddhist monks from India during the latter part of the Han dynasty (ca. 150 AD). It took over a century for Buddhism to become assimilated into Chinese culture. BUDDHIST SCHOOLS By the 6th century, and over the course of the next three centuries, the Chinese formed major schools of Buddhism. Two schools that retain their influence today are Pure Land Buddhism and Chan (Zen) Buddhism. Even in mainland China, where religion is often suppressed by the government, there are practitioners of these two schools of Chinese Buddhism. The teachings of various schools influenced and were adapted by Korea and Japan. There are thousands of sites dedicated to the Buddha. Here is another famous one. Shrines to Buddha are found throughout Asia as devotion spread. This shrine is in China.. A pilgrimage is a journey to a shrine or sacred Shrine to Vairocana Buddha. place for believers Longmen, Luoyang, Valley of hoping to receive the Yellow River, China, c. 600– special blessings or 650. deepening of faith. Natural rock carving, 50' high. Longmen Caves in China is a complex of cave- shrines for thousands of sculptures all dedicated to Buddha. OVER THE CENTURIES, BUDDHIST BELIEFS BECAME MORE COMPLEX. Bodhisattvas are living beings who have attained Buddhahood but have chosen to remain on earth to help others. The Bodhisattvas are immediate personal intercessors who give aid. Depictions of Guanyin vary radically, with two to twelve arms, often crowned, sometimes with a muscular male body and sometimes with an The Water and Moon Guanyin Bodhisattva, China, effeminate body Song Dynasty, c. 1100. Painted wood, 7' 11" high. The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City.