Ms. Gin Test Review PDF

Transatlantic voyages have affected World history because trade across these areas allowed for culture and disease to spread. Islamic explorers explored these trade routes. Indian trade networks used to be the biggest trade route (In the indian ocean). This is because Mongols fell off which made the...

Transatlantic voyages have affected World history because trade across these areas allowed for culture and disease to spread. Islamic explorers explored these trade routes. Indian trade networks used to be the biggest trade route (In the indian ocean). This is because Mongols fell off which made their silk road trade unprotected, causing more robberies. There’s also a shift in commercial practices and people can buy on credit making trade easier. You also got compasses and lateen sails to help move faster. Swahili city states in Africa benefited from this. They imported gold and ivory, and sold enslaved people. Ming Dynasty (1368-1398) Zhu Yuan Zhang Aka Hongwu Emperor. He reduced taxes, passed reforms to increase agriculture, revived Chinese traditions like Confucianism because Mongols didn’t do that. Got rid of corruption. Got rid of certain government positions to make himself powerful. China also had tributaries which are places that give China gifts in return for peace and military support. Yongle Emperor (1402-1424) Very aggressive and led campaigns in the mongolian tribes. Got supplies like cloves, ginger, pepper, carpets, gold, silver. They had OP naval technology with cannons on their ships. The Yongle emperor got big ships to go on voyages led by the admiral Zheng He. This guy went on voyages across areas bordering the Indian ocean. This helped spread China’s influence. However, this eventually had to stop as these expeditions cost too much money. Start of the Qing Dynasty Kangxi Emperor (1654-1722) Manchu Emperor: How did he get influence if he was foreign? Born in Beijing. Shunzhi, the emperor, died so Kangxi became emperor. However he was too young so 4 regents helped him rule. Educated by his grandma and he was very smart. Although the Ming court was destroyed, the Zhang family resisted. Them and their followers fled to Taiwan. He kept military presence to scare people, however he let people keep their culture and let the Han govern themselves (The Yi Han Zhi Han system).. He also allowed people to trade with foreign nations. He respected the Europeans for some of their education like math. However, he was cautious, unbiased, and made sure that his ruling isn’t corrupt. Qianlong Emperor: The Grandson of Kangxi Made 6 journeys to the south and documented his southern inspection tour. He got the empire very big, getting parts of Korea and Japan.Just like Kangxi, the Qianlong emperor’s empire is very diverse. He represented himself differently to different cultures. To Tibetans, he was a bodhisattva. To Mongols, he was a scholar and patron of Chinese learning and art. Commissioned a collection of literary work. Collected many chinese painting and artifacts. The House of Romanov was the reigning imperial house of Russia from 1613 to 1917 Chapter 23 Reading People are united by religion. Many people in Europe had converted to christianity by 1000 CE but it wasn’t long until some revolts started happening during the 16th and 17th century. Protestant Reformation Since the Roman Catholic church was getting so powerful due to the fame of the religion, many people started getting greedy. Popes and Bishops eliminated pre-Christian traditions and tried to find other kinds of spirituality. This made people angry as they wanted a closer connection with god. In addition churches kinda became “pay to win” where if you pay money to the church, all your sins will be removed. What happened was this dude named Martin Luther (not the dude ur thinking about) used Johannes Gutenberg's (This guy invented mechanical printing) printers and started pumping out Bible’s in german and his own thoughts on the church. He believed that the bible is the true authority and that salvation could not be earned through good works. He also advocated for translation of the bible to different languages, and an end to the authority of the pope. Many German cities and other princes supported Luther on his thoughts. Reformation in France John Calvin was also a dude who converted to Protestant Christanity. He slipped across the border to Geneva because the French monarchy didn’t like protestants. He worked with local officials to create a code called Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. Calvin’s ideas differ from Luther’s idea (most of them are the same but this one is different) as he believes that God is so op that he already knows if a person will go to hell or heaven even before they were born (So John Calvin emphasizes the power of god more than Luther does). These people known as “the elect” will go to heaven no matter what. Calvinists who are people that follow this religion study the bible regularly and remove themselves from activities like dancing. This religion spread to other parts of Europe (Especially France and a little bit into Germany, Scotland and the Netherlands.) They established many Churches in these areas. Reformation in England The protestants' influence spread to ENGLAND which is kinda crazy. However King Henry VIII didn’t like this since the king wanted to control what religion the people he controlled has. Henry wanted to divorce his wife, however the pope refused him to do so. Henry was like yo, you don’t tell me what to do, I want to be the new pope and get hella power. However, this didn’t really work out for Henry as the protestant people were too influential and Roman Catholic stuff got dominated by the protestant stuff in 1560. By the late 16th century, Lutherans, Anglicans and Calvinsits built large communities. The Catholic Reformation Ngl if I was the catholic church, I wouldn’t take all this hatred towards my religion. The Roman Catholic church tried tryna find ways to get people to like the OG christianity again. This attempt is called the Catholic Reformation. One way the Roman Catholic church tried to get people to like their religion is the Council of Trent (1545-1563). Church officials gathered in a group and discussed what could be done to make the Church better. The council stated that the church was abusing its power; they required church authorities to establish schools and seminaries to actually educate upcoming priests on what to do and what not to do so that they don’t abuse their power. Meanwhile… This dude St.Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) wanted to expand the reformed Roman Church (This dude is basically the op of Martin Luther and John Calvin). He created the Society of Jesus which sought to expand the boundaries of the newly reformed church. He wanted members of his society (also called Jesuits) to complete advanced education in theology, philosophy, language, literature, history and science. These high expectations made members of the society really good at arguments against opponents and had a very good reputation for discipline and determination. They served as counselors to kings and promoted policies that benefited the church. This attracted people from India, China, Japan, Philippines and the Americas. Hunting for Witches Europeans believe that certain people had crazy powers that influenced human affairs or discovered the identity of a thief. People believed these “Witches” got their powers from the devil; that they worship the devil in exchange for powers like flying on brooms or pitchforks. Witches also flew away to take action in devil worship (Also called “witches’ sabbath.). These theories had people hunting out for these bad guys, and witches became the reason for a lot of bad things. Are the crops bad? That’s because the witches are here. A fire outbreak? It’s the witches fault. An unexpected death? You get the idea. 110,000 people went under trial as suspected witches. 45,000 of them died from hanging or being burned. A lot of supposed “witches” also got excommunication (Kicked from the church) and imprisoned. Women were the prime target for witches (About 85% of the condemned were women) and it was usually the poor, old or single ones as they had the least support. By the 1700's, a lot of the witch stuff disappeared and it ended in 1782. Religious Wars: Protestants vs Roman Catholic Church The beef is really getting heated. In 1588 King Phillip the 2nd of Spain wanted England to return to the Roman Catholic church by sending 130 ships and 30,000 to dethrone the protestant Queen Elizabeth. This didn’t work and English forces sent their own ships and countered everything. In 1567 Philip sent an army to suppress the Calvinist movement which resulted in a rebellion. By 1610, the modern Netherlands won their independence and formed a republic called the United Provinces. The 30 Years War (1618-1648) Same story, Holy Roman emperor wanted people to be Roman Catholics. People didn’t like that so they rebelled mostly in Germany. This war absolutely ruined Europe and ⅓ of the German population died. Over time, the centralized Monarchs were the people that made that cash from this controversy, allowing them to create a system to maintain order. However, there wasn’t really an imperial Government in western Europe. The Roman Empire extended only to Germany so what’s gonna happen to that area? Charles V (The guy who was too op) The Habsburg family dominated the Holy Roman empire after 1438. Charles V got authority over Austrian domains, the duchy of Burgundy and the kingdom of Spain. He became emperor in 1519 and got authority over Germany, Bohemia, Switzerland and northern Italy. Charles didn’t really have time to expand his empire since he had to counter the Lutheran movement and the princes who used the religious controversy to try and be independent. Each of the lands he ruled had its own laws and customs. He used wealthy lands to fund his military. His army was mostly used to put down rebellions. Now Ottomans, Kings of France got a little scared of this dude's empire. The French kings told German Lutherans to rebel and ganged up with the Ottoman Turks against Charles V. The Ottomans didn’t want Charles controlling eastern Europe. Ottomans conquered Hungary in 1526 and besieged Vienna in 1529 and almost conquered the entire North Africa. Charles saw this and basically gave up and retired to a monastery. The New Monarchs (What happened after Charles Left?) Without Charles, there wasn’t really an imperial power. So each region got their own stuff going on. Italy was making bank with trade. England, France and Spain were the powerful ones. However, it wasn’t long until some rulers came and asserted their dominance. There people were known as “The New Monarchs” and assembled resources, curbed the nobility and centralized regimes. These monarchs included Henry VIII of England, Louis XI, Francis I of France, Fernando and Isabel of Spain. The French kings imposed taxes on sales households and the sale trade. The English kings didn’t impose taxes (They didn’t want people to rebel), but they raised fines and fees for royal services. Henry VIII ended relationships between the English and Roman Church. He confiscated the church’s wealth in England. He used this new money to increase the size of the state and support orphans and the poor. With all this money, these monarchs had crazy power. French and Spanish monarchs got big armies with thousands of people. They had cannons as well. The English didn’t really need an army to put down rebellions (The rebellions were only once in a while) so they didn’t need to spend money on one. The English kings also forced nobles to comply with their royal policy. All the protests about the churches and religions helped the monarchs increase their power, as they can support the new religion and they get money from churches to expand their empire. (The Divine Right of Kings. Kings stated how they could rule because god said so) The Spanish Inquisition Fernando and Isabel (The Spanish Monarchs of Spain) founded this in 1478. Originally the goal of The Spanish Inquisition is to find out the people who practice Islam, Judaism or find the people that are dissing Christian faith. This spread beyond the Iberian Peninsula and people started teaching others not to diss christianity (This term is called heresy when people diss christianity). Inquisitors had powers to investigate people who might have participated in heresy. The punishments for those who were found are brutal, however there are theories that a lot of innocent people got framed. Restoring Order After The 30 Years War Some people in France, Spain, Austria, Prussia and Russia maintained an absolute monarchy while rulers in England and the Netherlands created constitutional states; these states limited the power of governments and talked about rights to individuals. England had a constitutional monarchy while the Netherlands had a republic based on representative government. But how did England turn into a constitutional government? That stuff doesn’t just happen in one day. In fact, this is the result of something called the “English Civil War” (1642-1649). Origin of King Charles the First House of Tudor: (This is the weird love triangle cheating story Ms Gin talked about) Tudors ruled the Kingdom of England, wales and ireland. Succeeded house of Plantagenet. Just know that Mary Steward (Mary Queen of Scots) is the mother of James the first of Scotland, England and Ireland aka the king of the UK (This guy is part of the Stuart bloodline which are kings of the UK.). James was a pretty bad ruler. He consulted parliament to raise taxes for wars. He wanted absolute rule and he wasn’t religiously tolerant. Parliament thought James was annoying and soon he died. James’ son Charles I becomes King. Elizabeth the first was the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. English kings tried to create new taxes without the support of the parliament. (Normally the parliament approves the new taxes). This isn’t the only cause of the war, as Anglician kings support churches with ceremonies and a hierarchy of bishops. Meaning, passionate Calvinists also called Puritans didn’t really like those practices. By 1641, King Charles I and the parliament were beefing with each other, and both sides got their armies ready (Parliament army was led by Oliver Cromwell). Parliament actually captured King Charles and beheaded him in 1649. Oliver Cromwell tried to become a dictator but people didn't like that so the parliament restored the monarchy in 1660. Not much longer, the Glorious Revolution occurred (1688-1689). When King James the 2nd’s daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange got the throne, the beef between the parliament and the Kings were squashed. The result was an environment where nobles and merchants had a chance to represent themselves in government affairs. End of English Civil War in more detail Oliver Cromwell: While King Charles the first was abusing his power, this is the dude who stopped him. King Charles is the dude who made taxes and stuff without the parliament's permission. Cromwell was born in 1599 in England. His father is Thomas Cromwell and his family is very rich. At 21 years old, he married Elizabeth Bourchier. This dude was also religious, he got baptized and joined the Puritans sect of Christianity. Puritans believed that God already chose certain people to belong in heaven, and that the rest of the people belonged to hell. So these kinds of people were very careful and tried to please god. This dude got elected to parliament in 1628, then got removed from parliament in 1629 by the king (The king suspended parliament to try and become an absolute monarch). However, the king brought back parliament after the rebellion in Scotland against his rule. This dude went on his villain arc even though he had no military experience. He recruited hella people and rebelled against the king. He won battles like the Battle of Edgehill in 1642. He became lieutenant and won the Battle of Naseby and the Battle of Langport in 1645. This was the end of the first English Civil War, however, while trying to make a treaty with the Royalists (People who supported the king during the war.), they started beefing again in 1648 (The Second English Civil War). Cromwell had speeches where he talked about how the stuff he’s doing is supported by god. He eventually won the Second English Civil War and killed Charles the first. This dude also went to Ireland and killed hella people there cuz they supported the king (Also cuz some of them were catholic). This rampage caused long suffering for the Irish people. Cromwell returned to England in 1650 where he found out that the son of Charles the first (Charles the second) became king. He went to Scotland and crashed out, winning a decisive battle in Dundee. Parliament got reformed in 1651, and Cromwell wanted this unity between England, Scotland and Ireland. Specifically, he wanted new elections. However, people didn’t like this idea so he disbanded parliament. John Lambert, a Parliament General, made Cromwell the Lord Protector for Life (1653) Basically he was the king. Cromwell was a smart dude. When people wanted him to be king, he said no because he didn’t want it to end up like King Charles the first abusing his power. However, he was secretly the king, but people didn’t really think about it that way. This type of ruling is called De Facto. Charles the Second of England: After Cromwell died from Kidney stone disease, this dude was crowned king in 1661. Born in 1630, it was 2 years after his dad Charles the first, signed the petition of right. (This petition was the one that limits the king's power. Told him that if he wanted to make stuff like taxes, he'd have to tell parliament about that.) This guy was kinda all over the place, trying not to get killed by Cromwell. Once Cromwell died, he got an army and the right to kill officials that were associated with his fathers death. Unlike his father, Charles the 2nd honored the petition of right and agreed to a limited income. This dude was kinda selfish though and put his own pleasure in going to the Royal court for women and wine, rather than prioritizing his divine right to rule. In 1670, he supported France in a war against the Dutch and converted to catholicism in return for money. There was controversy against Charle’s chief advisor from some anti-catholics, so he dissolved the parliament and ruled alone. He died in 1685. The Glorious Revolution Of 1688-1689: After Charles the 2nd died, you got King James the 2nd ruling. This dude was also catholic, had many catholics in his army, and was also tight with France. In 1687, he made a law saying that Catholics can’t really be punished and accepted people who disliked protestants. James’ son was the next successor and people found out that King James the 2nd was gonna make him catholic, getting a lot of people angry. Now William of Orange got a lot of messages from King James’ peers that promised that they would support him if he attacked Charles the 2nd in England. This dude said say no more and landed in Devon in 1688. King James knew this was gonna happen and left London to get his army. However, many of his men and his family betrayed him. In addition, his health was getting worse. He went back to London to try to reason with the people but he was actually tryna leave the country after this. He got captured tho in 1688 and died in exile in 1701. Parliament in 1701 agreed to a joint monarchy (2 monarchies in a state.) So in this case, it’s William and his wife Mary (James’ daughter). They signed the English Bill of rights and had constitutional principles like freedom of speech and forbade the monarchy from being Catholic. This also had an impact in America for the 13 colonies. These colonies were freed from anti puritan laws. So yeah, this is the story of how England went from an Absolute Monarchy to a Constitutional Monarchy. Never again, will there be an absolute monarchy. English Bill of Rights Ideas: 1. You can’t remove laws without parliament consent 2. Gotta have parliament approving ur laws if u wanna make one 3. When there’s no war, u can’t keep an army active and busy. 4. Right to speak out against the king 5. Right to bear arms 6. No bias when electing parliament officials 7. Parliament has freedom of speech 8. No harsh punishments 9. Can’t take away someone's property before they are convicted of a crime 10. Parliament should meet regularly to discuss about topics (I put 2 more on here than what’s on the document) Glorious Revolution Documents First Document: As a ruler, you can’t have people breaking all the laws. If the state already got a religion that the king follows, you can’t have foreign people tryna change that religion that everyone follows. Second Document: Parliament should meet once in at least 3 years. Any stuff y’all want to talk about will be discussed. Third Document: If ur catholic, u can’t be king or have any government position Fourth Document: “According to this political theory, the lyrics of "Rock-A-Bye Baby" were a death wish directed at the infant son of King James II, hoping he would die and be replaced by a Protestant king.” Who Wrote “Rock-A-Bye Baby”? | Wonderopolis The Dutch Republic Just like how there was beef in England, there was also beef in the Netherlands. King Philip the 2nd of Spain didn’t like the Calvinist movement in the Netherlands. Married to queen Mary the first of England. These people were rebelling against Spanish rule. A group of Dutch Provinces created an anti-Spanish group called the Independent United Provinces. Spain didn’t recognize the independence of this new republic until it was the end of the 30 year war in 1648. The constitutional states of both the England and Dutch republic allowed entrepreneurs to pursue their goals without much backlash, leading to prosperity. Both merchants and rulers have a good relationship with each other as merchants get the money, and rulers have policies that look after the merchants as they want money. Absolute Monarchies Constitutional states try to find ways to share power. Absolute monarchies however want more power to the state. To do this, rulers claim their power comes from God and anyone who disagrees will die. These monarchies often had support from nobles and other groups. Cardinal Richelieu, a minister to King Louis XIII, tried to undermine the power of the nobility to try to make the king more powerful. He destroyed nobles’ castles and crushed any conspiracies. He built a big bureaucracy where the people are loyal to the king. He appointed officials to look over the implementation of the royal policy. Finally, he attacked French Calvinists. A big example of a person who uses this system is a dude called King Louis XIV aka the Sun King. Once again he claimed his power was from god. He built a residence at Versailles which is a hunting lodge near Paris. He moved his court there in the 1680s. Court officials tended to his every need and people tried to live near Versailles just so they were close to the king. The king provided entertainment for the nobles, and in return they were loyal to the king. He also had a big army and established new industries; built roads and canals and export for trade. Absolute Monarchies in Russia Boyer- a member of the old aristocracy in Russia, next in rank to a prince. Peter I, aka Peter the Great, tried to make Russia into a great military power. He led Russian observers on a tour of Germany, the Netherlands and England to learn about how the leaders controlled that area. After the tour he improved pay for the military and turned prisoners into soldiers. He provided training and weapons. He wanted aristocrates to study math and geometry so that he could learn how to aim cannons; he also constructed a navy. The government bureaucracy facilitated tax collection. People also had to shave their beards and wear western European clothes. One successor of Peter is Catherine the 2nd aka Catherine the great. She divided the empire into 50 provinces and worked to improve the life of the poor. Serfs could no longer be punished by their masters in a cruel way. She also protested against things like torture and beating. However, Yemelian Pugachev mounted a rebellion in the lands north of the Caspian Sea. He raised an army which killed thousands of noble landowners and government officials. However, he was caught and he died. Catherine preserved autocratic rule and didn’t really use western European models as a guide to run Russia. How the 30 Years War Ended After the 30 years war, European governments had very powerful states which led to a lot of competition whether they were part of absolutism or constitutional principles. To avoid conflict between states, the Peace of Westphalia (1648) was created. All states recognize each other as equal. They all recognized that they can organize their own affairs; so basically everyone was doing their own thing. There were some conflicts including the wars of Louis XIV and the 7 years war. Louis XIV wanted to expand his empire which caused England, the United Provinces and Austria to fight back. The 7 years war was a war where it was France, Austria and Russia vs Britain and Prussia. All of this illustrates how when one state gets too powerful, it’s gonna be a big target which makes a lot of states “play it safe” by being independent. All these wars actually led to more military development. States had military academies where everyone is learning about strategy and efficient weapons which only increased the demand for powerful weapons. BY the 18th century, European weapons were the most op in the whole world. Capitalism- “an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit.” Whether it’s single individuals or large companies, private parties own the land and everything needed for production. These parties hire workers and decide what they are going to produce. The center of a capitalist system is the market, where businessmen compete with each other. Due to the growing population and economy, capitalism was starting to become popular. It didn’t develop in a political sense, rather it emerged with active support of government authorities. Early capitalism developed through imperialism (Expansion of empire) as people wanted to find commercial opportunities. European merchants found resources and commodities due to this expansion. Transportation allowed businessmen to profit from markets and merchants and manufacturers organize their affairs with the market. Now how did this all happen? Well first off with a growing population u gotta feed everyone. The columbian exchange gave Europeans supplies including potatoes, maize, tomatoes and peppers. Europe's population used to be 81 million in 1500. In the 16th century, it rose to 100 million. By 1700, the population rose to 120 million. Next century it rose to 180 million. This is the columbian exchange. America and Europe traded a lot of supplies, diseases etc. Because the Europeans got a much better diet, diseases like influenza didn’t infect as many humans as before. Urbanization became more popular and some cities like Madrid had a very dense population size for the land it occupied. Supply and Demand How to earn money? Step one: Buy a resource that’s fairly common in one area. Dutch merchants can purchase grain from Poland or Russia. Step 2: Sell it for a higher price in a place where the thing you got is uncommon. In places where grain is uncommon like southern France or Spain because of a famine or something, you can sell your cheap grain for a way higher price. Banks have also started appearing where they held funds and gave out loans to people launching new businesses. Banks also provided reports on prices, info about demand for stuff in markets, and political news. Joint-stock companies are companies where the stock is owned by the owners of shares in the company. These companies like the English East India Company spread the risks attached to business enterprises (Basically that means they use their investments on multiple projects so that if one thing fails, it won’t be that bad.). Putting Out System Craft guilds have monopolized (Means took a lot of control of) textiles and metalwares. Their prices and quality were fixed which got a lot of people a little bit pissed. If you wanna make money, your price can’t be the same throughout the whole process. This way of owning a business is nice since you don’t really have competition, however people there wanted to find ways to maximize profits instead of maintaining stability. This is where the Putting out system was created. It’s where entrepreneurs gave something like raw wool to rural households. The people in the households would turn the wool into something like cloth and make that into garments. The entrepreneur pays the household for their service, and takes the garment to sell it on the market. Other things sold by this system are nails, pins, pots. Rural labor was pretty common making trade very efficient. This resulted in the peasant households that are doing the labor getting money as well. Serfdom in Russia Russia was a sparsely populated empire with little trade or manufacturing. The Romanov tsars (Tsars are the leaders) wanted to keep the nobles (Who owned most of Russia’s land) loyal so they decided to restrict the freedom of peasants and made them serfs. This institution called serfdom didn’t allow peasants to marry or move away and required them to undergo labor to their landlords. Western Europe didn’t really use this (After the 15th century serfdom came to an end there) but Eastern Europe abused this, making this system survive until the 19th century. In 1649, the government promoted a law code that provided tight state control over the labor force by making a castelike social order. During the late 17th century, landlords were able to sell surfs like they were private property. These landlords operated estates with cheat labor and got so much money. Especially in capitalism, such large amounts of money provided people with grain and raw materials like timber. During the early 16th century, people in the Netherlands were relying on Poland and Russia to send them grain. Some people didn’t really like capitalism since they felt like the people making money were selfish and weren’t considering the peasants. Church officials also thought that interest was unearned and immoral profit. Some people like Adam Smith thought that society would make so much money if people pursue their economic interest. Capitalism has its goods and bads, and there were some violence associated with all of this. The Nuclear Family: a couple and their dependent children, regarded as a basic social unit. European couples married in their mid 20s and set up independent households. Early capitalism allowed these people to make money by cultivating crops or producing goods. These families become more emotionally and socially independent. Transformations in Scientific Thinking: The Scientific Revolution Until the 17th Century, European Astronomers based their understanding of the universe on the work of Claudius Ptolemy. Claudius created the Almagest which were theories about the universe. There’s a motionless earth surrounded by 9 hollow spheres that revolve around it. (These people thought that planets orbited around the earth instead of the sun.) There was the sun, moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. The 8th planet held the stars and the 9th one surrounded the whole cosmos and provided the orbit that keeps the planets moving. Astronomers believed that heavens consisted of matter that keeps things from changing or corrupting. Now people saw that the planets sometimes slowed down, stopped or turned back on their orbits which made people believe that the planets didn’t revolve regularly around the earth. In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus published a written work saying how planets actually orbit around the sun rather than earth. There was some backlash since it kinda contradicted everything people said before, however it was proven to be true. And this was none other than… The Scientific Revolution Part 2 Galileo Galilei disproved the Ptolemaic universe. He showed that planets didn’t orbit the sun in a circular motion, rather in an elliptical (Oval shaped) way. He showed how the heavens were a world of change. He used his telescope and saw spots on the sun and mountains on the moon. This was important as people back then thought that the planets were smooth and perfectly spherical. He also saw that 4 moons orbit Jupiter and saw distant stars; which meant that the universe is way bigger than anyone had thought. This dude also stated how the velocity of something that is falling depends on the height they fall off of, not their weight. He also came up with the modern law of inertia, which says that something moving will continue to move in a straight line until something intervenes and stops it. Issac Newton was another important figure in the Scientific Revolution. Here are just a couple of things he proved. This stuff inspired other scientists to get rid of old theories and come up with new ones through experimentation. There were also women scientists like Emilie Du Chatelet which focused on mathematics. She translated and commentated Isaacs Newton's work of Principia Mathematica. She died at 43 years old after giving birth to a child. A lot of people in the 18th and 19th century didn’t like monarchies and aristocracies because they didn’t support the ideas of the public. They argued for the majority to make decisions. The Scientific Revolution Figures Jeffery and Rafa: Nicolaus Copernius Feb 19 1473 Polish astronomer and mathematician. Youngest of 4 kids into a family of wealthy merchants (So he had 3 siblings). Father died when he was 10 so he was taken in by his uncle. Went to the University of Krakow. He came up with the Heliocentric Theory. This stated that the sun was the center of the universe, and that planets orbited around it. Also says that earth rotated on its axis. This theory was wrong in 2 ways. Orbits around the sun were elliptical, not circular. Also the sun is the center of the solar system, not the universe. Stuff he wrote about didn’t really get published until he dies Justice Group: Galileo Galilei Born Feb 15 1564 Privately tutored. He went to the University of Pisa to study medicine but he didn’t get his degree. Talked about gravity, speed/velocity, compound motion and math. Built a thermoscope that measures change in temperature. Talked about parabolic motion and the concept of inertia. Worked on a telescope that zooms in 30x. His beliefs were hated by the Catholic Church. Wrote a book called dialogue concerning the 2 chief world systems basically supporting his ideas. Fun fact: During his trial he claimed that he didn’t believe in heliocentrism, if he did he would have gotten in big trouble Leo’s Group: Tycho Brahe Dec 14 1546. Born in Denmark. He was given an island by royal support. Moved to Prague where he left Johannes Kepler as his disciple. He discovered supernovas and said that it was a new star (Modern day showed that supernovas are exploding stars.) Supported the fluid heaven theory. Heaven is outside the universe. He challenged Aristotle’s ideas and discovered Tungsten. He lost the bridge of his nose after a confrontation with cousin about who was the better mathematician. Refined quadrant and sextant. Created a new model, hybrid of Heliocentric and commonly accepted one. Accurately positioned over 700 stars within an arcminute. Lila’s Group: Francis Bacon January 22 1561 Born in London and had a rigorous education. Studied with John Whitgift, a humanist. Studied law in Gray’s inn. Became member of parliament in 1584. Involved in the investigation for English Catholics that were plotting against Queen Elizabeth. Argued for stern action against Mary Queen of Scots. “Doubt everything before assuming the truth.” He developed the scientific method. Ahyan’s Group: Rene Descartes March 31 1596 Creative math, philosopher/ His father was a lawyer and his mother died when he was 14 months old. Had a daughter Francine Descartes. He attended the Jesuit college of La Fleche Law. Became a soldier in Breda supporting protestant prince marcie. Father of modern philosophy. Wrote many books on it. Introduced deductive reasoning. Linked the fields of geometry and algebra. He created the graph coordinate with the x and y axis. Idan’s Group Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek (October 24 1632- August 26 1723) Born in the Netherlands. Father died when young. Created a family of 5. Loved grinding lenses to create a single lens microscope. Inspired by Robert Hooke who discovered cells in 1667. Discovered blood cells, studied structures of crystal and wood. Discovered sperm and egg. Oscars Group Issac Newton (1643-1727) Born in Lincolnshire England. Attempted to be a farmer. Attended king's school. Got into Cambridge and returned home when the great plague broke out. Theories on calculus, light and color. Popular story about an apple falling from a tree. Created the first reflecting telescope. Margerat Cavendish https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1NExKz6sU7hhkgHhDAO1hExOQlZJ3Cn2ApmF6k_oyI T8/edit#slide=id.g3058304ecac_0_23 Denis Diderot (1713-1784): He created the French Encyclopedie because he supported humans' ability to be smart and reason with things. Keep in mind this was in the Enlightenment period (Hesseltine flashbacks.) He gathered 200 experts on different subjects and basically made books talking about different subjects like animals, war, weaponry. So information that the Church and government usually kept hidden were now being revealed to the public. (They were not happy.) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): This guy sought to answer the question: To what extent should we obey our rulers (Especially if they are bad) and when should we start revolutions. He wrote the Leviathan in 1651 where he talked about why people should obey their governments, even if it’s bad; to avoid war. You remember how Monarchs said that they were able to rule because god said so? Well some people thought that normal people in society should have the power. Only when things with the king are working well for them should they start obeying the king. This is called The Social Contract theory of government. Hobbes opposed this theory and stated how men would fight and go crazy without an authority figure (He called this the state of nature). Only if the king threatened to kill people should the people rebel. He also said that men are equal; even though some might be smarter or stronger than others, if people are better than you, you still don’t think they’re better than you. John Locke (1632-1704): Wrote “A Letter Concerning Toleration” which talked about 3 key things. First thing is that if someone has a different religious opinion than you, that’s completely fine. This caused less discrimination against people with certain beliefs. He disagreed with Thomas Hobbes about “The State of Nature”. 2nd thing is that he said that people were peaceful, and that everyone has certain rights that no ruler can take away. He also said that if a ruler is corrupt, the people can overthrow the ruler. It’s and get a new change in government. Influenced the Declaration of Independence (The right to bear arms). The 3rd thing he said is that people gain knowledge from experience instead of being born with knowing certain ideas. Said that education is crucial to how people turn out. Gotta have a good base of education as a child as that stuff sticks to you. He also said people shouldn’t learn useless subjects like Latin, Greek and poetry; and should study important things like science and business. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797): Famous women's right activist born in London. Women back then had no power. They couldn’t divorce, have a job, have an education, get an income if married (Husband gets the income). She wrote “The Ways of Women” (1798) where she stated that women were just as capable as men. She left home at 19 and helped her sister escape from her husband. She didn’t get married since she would probably get controlled by her husband. Instead, she raised a daughter by herself and became a servant, then a seamstress, teacher and governess to Viscount and Lady Kingsborough in Ireland. She wrote outside of doing jobs like these; created “A Vindication of the Rights of Women” where she demanded justice for women. She basically said if women actually had a voice they wouldn’t be useless. Y’all ain't letting us do anything, that’s why you think we’re useless. Women should have the power to apply to any job. We ain't existing just for men to be attracted to us. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755): Real name is Charles Louis de Secondat but changed his name after his uncle died. He wrote a book called Persian Letters where he dissed the French Church and King’s court. He admired the England government and wrote The Spirit of Laws in 1748 where he glazed the government. The English government at that time was very similar to our government where u got 3 branches. Judicial, legislative and executive. The parliament made the laws (executive), the king enforces the laws (legislative) and you got the courts which interpreted them (Judicial). This actually inspired the American government. Voltaire: Born in 1694. Started education in Paris and got a career in literature. Fix society through justice and happiness. Believed that our world that’s made by god is the best world (From his novel Candied). Also didn’t like the French government and liked the England government instead. He advocated for free speech and religion. He ran into prison for his ideas so he constantly had to move. Rousseau: Born in Geneva 1712 and died in 1778. Mother died when he was little so he was raised by his father and moved to France to get an education. He liked philosophy and wrote with Denis Diderot. Wrote about books, inequality, social contrast, science and arts. Stated that original people were free. Thought that the government is bad as it takes priority in the rich. Wrote a book called “The Social Contract” (Don’t get this confused with the social contract theory) of 1762 suggested a state where men would give their freedom in exchange for them to agree to a self imposed law. People are united by general will (Common interest). Olympe de Gouges (Real name: Marie Gouze): French Political activist during the French Revolution. Known for “The Declaration of the Rights of Women” which stated how women had natural born rights just like men. Madame Marie-Therese Rodet Geoffrin: Held weekly salons where writers and politicians gathered. At the time where women didn’t have an education, the salon was a very good substitute for formal education. I got lazy https://womennart.com/2019/06/26/otd-marie-therese-geoffrin/ Chapter 28 Reading A lot of people in the 18th and 19th century didn’t like monarchies and aristocracies because they didn’t support the ideas of the public. They argued for the majority to make decisions. Enlightenment: A time period where people thought that human reason (The ability to think and understand) can help people discover truths about the universe. This era was the nerdy science people era. The Enlightenment sought to discover natural laws that governed human society. John Locke (We talked about him) wanted to discover the natural laws of politics. He hated that monarchs could rule cuz they have support from god. Adam Smith studied supply and demand which was essential for economics. Baron de Montesquieu tried to establish a stable society. The center of the Enlightenment was France, where philosophers advanced the cause of reason. They showed dramas, novels and satires to the educated public in order to address issues. You also have Voltaire, (Aka Francois Marie Arouet) where his writings included 70 volumes and ten thousand letters. He was pro freedom and didn’t support systems where it limited freedom. He attacked the French monarchy and the catholic church. All these people were Deists (Followed Deism) which are people who believe there’s a god, but didn’t believe in the teachings of christianity. They thought that this god was only watching over them and they didn’t intervene in human affairs. The Theory of Progress Most philosophes expected human understanding and science to advance very fast. It’s all about progress, the more the humans understand, the more individual freedom and stable society there is. Enlightenment followers advocated for women's rights. Mary Astell, a famous English writer asked if all men were born free, all women are born slaves. These advocates were found in Britain, France and North America. Mary Wollstonecraft was another advocate, she read books at home and published an essay called A Vindication of the rights of Women. She stated how women were just as capable of men and that women should also get education as it would make them better mothers and wives. Also, it would contribute to society by preparing them for jobs and politics. Enlightened Despot: Monarchs who supported the enlightenment and tried to make their society’s education and economy. Frederick the great: He had a bunch of military successes in the Cilesian war. He established Prussia as the dominant nation in Europe during the 7 years war because of his military leadership.