History Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

Indigenous America: Mesoamerican Societies Shared Characteristics ​ Polytheism: Belief in multiple gods. ​ Diets based on maize: Corn was a staple food. ​ Well-developed mathematical systems: Advanced math for trade and astronomy. ​ Calendar: Complex systems to track time. ​ Agricul...

Indigenous America: Mesoamerican Societies Shared Characteristics ​ Polytheism: Belief in multiple gods. ​ Diets based on maize: Corn was a staple food. ​ Well-developed mathematical systems: Advanced math for trade and astronomy. ​ Calendar: Complex systems to track time. ​ Agricultural techniques: Innovations in farming. ​ Written language: Systems of writing for communication. Mound Builders of the Mississippi River Valley (Mississippian Cultures) ​ Built hundreds of burial mounds. ​ Larger Mississippian groups were not present by the time of European arrival. Puebloan Peoples ​ Location: Southwestern US, present-day New Mexico and Arizona. ​ Cliff dwelling: Unique architectural style. ​ East of the Mississippi: Distinct cultural practices. Language/Culture Groupings 1.​ Algonquian 2.​ Iroquoian 3.​ Muskogean ​ Typically small, autonomous clans rather than large societies. ​ Hunting and warlike mentality. Shared Characteristics ​ Leadership: Chief or council of tribal elders. ​ Gender roles: Less strict than in Europe. ​ Matrilineal cultures: Inheritance through the mother. ​ Religious beliefs: Little divide between secular/religious, natural/spiritual.  ​ Animism: Belief in spirits in nature. ​ Community membership: Based on religious ceremonies. ​ Creator figure: Belief in one chief creator. Beliefs about Land and Property ​ Power derived from status, not wealth. ​ Generosity and gift-giving are central. ​ No concept of private ownership of land; possessions are what you make. West Africa ​ Significance of kinship: Family ties are crucial. ​ African slavery: Different from North American slavery. ​ European slave trade: Involvement of various European nations. Spanish Colonization ​ First Europeans in America: Scandinavians (Vikings). ​ Population rebound: Following the bubonic plague. Iberian Exploration ​ Iberian Peninsula: Spain and Portugal. ​ Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella: Unified Spain. ​ Desires to trade: Wanted to avoid other countries' routes. ​ Caravel: A speedy ship for exploration. ​ Mercantilism: Wealth is in gold/silver bullion, not free trade. ​ Colonies: Established to aid the mother country. Portuguese Exploration ​ Trading post empire: Expansion of the global slave trade. Empire and Conquest  ​ Major settlements: In Central and South America. ​ Motivations: Gold, God, Glory (Spanish conversion to Catholicism). ​ Treaty of Tordesillas: Divided new lands between Spain and Portugal. Spanish Exploration of North America ​ Southeast: Ponce de Leon, Hernando de Soto. ​ Southwest: Francisco Vasquez de Coronado. ​ Horses: Introduced to the Americas. ​ Missions: Established but no large settlements. New Spain ​ Hacienda: Large farms/ranches. ​ Encomienda: Land claim granting labor rights over natives. ​ Bartolome de Las Casas: Critic of Spanish treatment of natives. New France ​ Location: Canada, Great Lakes, Mississippi River. ​ Goals: Gold and Northwest Passage. ​ Marquette and Joliet: Explored the Mississippi Valley. ​ Mortality: High among young male indentured servants. ​ Middle ground: Relationships with natives based on trade. New Netherlands ​ Location: Manhattan, New York, New Jersey. ​ Trade focus: Major world trade center. ​ Dutch West India Company: Created New Amsterdam (NYC). ​ Patroonships: Land grants to encourage settlement. English Colonization Before Colonization ​ Social hierarchy: Born into a class.  ​ Limited monarchy: Parliament as a larger government body. ​ Desire for land: New World seen as a source of freedom. Indentured Servitude ​ Only about ⅓ of English settlers were free. ​ Servants under strict control with potential for "freedom dues." Chesapeake Bay Colonies ​ Virginia and Maryland: Key colonies. ​ Jamestown: First permanent settlement. ​ John Smith: Instilled military discipline. ​ Virginia Company: "Headright" system for land grants. ​ House of Burgesses: First elected assembly in America. Tobacco ​ Cash crop: Benefited England and individuals in Virginia. ​ Social structure: Emerged around wealthy planters. Relationships with Native Americans ​ Powhatan Confederacy: Initially peaceful relations turned conflictual. ​ Treaties: Often unfair and followed by battles. Puritanism ​ Protestant subgroup: Dissatisfied with the Church of England. ​ Beliefs: Focused on self-governed communities and moral living. ​ Expulsion from England: Seen as a national security threat. Emphasized Personal Bible Study and Educated Ministers Calvinism and Preordination ​ Influenced by Calvinism  ​ Belief in preordination: God had already decided their fate ​ Created internal pressure to demonstrate signs of salvation through good works ​ Freedom did not mean acting or worshiping however one wanted Mayflower Compact ​ Journey aimed to glorify God and work for the greater good Massachusetts Colonists ​ Family-oriented settlement ○​ More women than in Chesapeake colonies ○​ Families and congregations migrated to build communities ​ Not designed for profit but as a society-building project Government & Leadership ​ Charter colony granted to eight men by the king ​ Initially resisted democracy but added a representative body ○​ Town representatives had to be in good standing with the church Community Structure ​ Small towns, no large plantations ​ Each town required to have a church and school (to read the Bible) ​ Harvard University founded for religious education Social Hierarchy & Laws ​ Society divided: "Some must be rich, some must be poor" ​ Upper class recognized as "Gentleman" and "Lady" ​ Strict Puritan laws with severe punishments (banishment, execution) Church & State ​ Ministers couldn’t hold political power, but religion heavily influenced governance Divisions Begin Roger Williams' Criticism of Puritanism ​ First major critic of Puritanism in the New World ​ Considered the "Purest of Puritans" ​ Advocated separation from the Church of England and forming a new denomination ​ Believed any law-abiding citizen had the right to practice any religion ​ Banished from Massachusetts, escaped to Native American lands ​ Moved south and founded Rhode Island Anne Hutchinson’s Challenge ​ Hosted meetings where men and women discussed sermons ​ Criticized Puritan leadership, claiming people didn’t need the church to determine right and wrong ​ Tried, held in custody, and banished to Rhode Island Rhode Island & Connecticut ​ Rhode Island had no official church, no religious voting qualifications, and a more democratic government ​ Connecticut had a similar founding, with even greater church/state separation Expansion & New Colonies ​ The King took land from Massachusetts, granting it to others to form New Hampshire & Maine →Relations with Native Americans ​ Economy & Trade ○​ Primarily based on family farms, producing for themselves and selling surplus ○​ Strong trade industry due to good port locations ○​ Growing merchant and trader class ○​ Thriving shipping industry (fishing, timber, etc.) Decline of Puritanism ​ Strict religious adherence weakened over time  ​ Struggled to maintain church membership Revolutionary Sentiment ​ New England became a “hotbed of revolutionary activity” →Relationship with Native Americans ​ Neutral to strained relations—not overly aggressive since they didn’t need Native land ​ Did not attempt religious conversion (unlike the Spanish) ​ Viewed Natives as unfit for their society ​ Some conflicts arose as settlements expanded Pennsylvania/ William Penn William Penn & Land Grant ​ King owed a debt to Penn’s father ​ To repay, granted Penn land in America Quaker Beliefs & "Holy Experiment" ​ Society of Friends (Quakers) emphasized equality for all ​ Believed liberty was a universal entitlement ​ Prohibited swearing, drunkenness, and immoral behavior Democratic & Land Policies ​ Most of the male population could vote ​ Lower land ownership requirements for voting (100 acres vs. higher in other colonies) ​ Land was widely available ​ Eventually, only 50 acres were needed for freedom Carolina Charter & Purpose ​ Chartered by the King in 1663 ​ Created to prevent Spanish expansion from Florida ​ Granted to a group of wealthy planters  ​ Ties to Barbados ○​ Closely connected to Barbados, the richest plantation economy ○​ Many settlers were wealthy planters from Barbados who already owned slaves Plantation Economy ​ Headright system included slaves ​ Rice cultivation thrived, leading to rapid economic growth ​ Became the wealthiest elite in North America ​ From the start, Carolina was built as a plantation-based economy Georgia Founding & Purpose ​ Founded much later than other colonies (1732) ​ King’s goal: Act as a buffer against Spanish Florida ​ Charter granted to James Oglethorpe Oglethorpe’s Vision ​ Designed as a social experiment influenced by Enlightenment ideas ​ Believed in giving lower-class people a chance to improve their lives ​ Aimed to avoid extreme wealth disparity Early Policies ​ Slavery was initially outlawed ​ Sought to create a more equal society ​ Shift to Plantation Economy ○​ Economic reality and climate favored plantation farming ○​ Carolina planters moved in to expand their holdings ○​ Eventually, Georgia adopted a plantation-based economy Colonial Life Changes Population Growth  ​ Expanding Economy: limitless availability of land and labor; valuable part of triangle trade across Atlantic ​ Rising significance of INDIVIDUAL: cultural changes New England: Commerce & Atlantic Trade ​ Strong Commercial Ties ○​ America heavily connected to global markets ○​ Imports from various countries, exports to multiple destinations Economic Growth & Opportunities ​ New England benefited most due to geography ​ Many job opportunities and a thriving economy Wealth & Social Structure ​ Merchants became the wealthiest and most powerful citizens ​ Significant wealth inequality ​ In Boston, the top 5% owned half the city's wealth Urban & Port City Development ​ Port cities like Boston became economic hubs ​ City life flourished with commercial activity Middle Colonies ​ German and Irish→Pennsylvania ​ Land was offered to people at cheap prices ​ Wheat was a big crop and flower milling→”bread basket” ​ Eager for British goods ​ Quaker merchants Southern Colonies Plantation Owners & Slavery Growth  ​ Planters were the wealthiest class ​ Slavery increased significantly, reaching 400,000 by 1770 ​ Black population grew 3x faster than the white population ​ Slavery became essential to the economy ​ No restrictions on slaveholder power, with strict laws against slaves Regional Differences in Slavery ​ Upper South (Chesapeake) ○​ Tobacco farming used the “gang system” (set hours, constant supervision) ○​ Majority white population ​ Lower South (South Carolina & Georgia) ○​ First colonies with a majority slave population (2:1 overall, 10:1 in rice regions) ○​ Many white planters lived elsewhere due to disease and climate ○​ Used the “task system” (once tasks were completed, slaves had free time) ○​ Some slaves learned trades, farmed personal gardens, and built an African American community Enslaved Communities Diverse African Roots ​ Slaves came from various African cultures with different social structures, religions, and languages ​ Some owners intentionally mixed slaves from different regions to prevent communication and resistance Population Growth ​ Natural increase through reproduction became the primary source of population growth ​ Slave population eventually surpassed the number of people being brought over Cultural Adaptation & Resistance ​ Slaves balanced accommodation and resistance ​ Created unique identities and communities African Traditions and Religious Influence African Traditions ​ Some African traditions were preserved, while others were lost. ​ Kinship structures and spiritual beliefs remained significant. ​ Presence of Muslim enslaved people influenced cultural practices. Religious Influence ​ Over time, enslaved people were forced to adopt Christianity. The Glorious Revolution Background ​ Authority: Parliament vs. Monarchy. ​ Problems with King: Political unrest and religious conflict (Catholics vs. Protestants). King's Actions 1.​ Created the "Dominion of New England." 2.​ Removed self-government and placed Andros in charge. The Glorious Revolution ​ The King was overthrown, and Andros was removed in the colonies. ​ English people offered the throne to Dutch rulers (William and Mary). ​ William and Mary became rulers after the Glorious Revolution. English Bill of Rights, 1689 ​ Settled the issue of King vs. Parliament; the King does NOT control Parliament. ​ Protects individual and parliamentary rights. ​ Grants rights to all English subjects. Significance for Colonists ​ Colonists remained English subjects until the Declaration of Independence. ​ People did not identify as “Americans” yet. The American Enlightenment Overview ​ Began in France, a transatlantic movement. ​ Applies the scientific method to all areas of life (systematically, logically). ​ Focus on reason and logic. Growth of American Identity ​ Increased literacy and interest in reading. ​ "Freedom of the press" viewed as essential to liberty. ​ Pressure on newspapers to monitor content. Enlightenment Ideas ("-isms") 1.​ John Locke: Natural rights. 2.​ Montesquieu: Separation of powers. 3.​ Thomas Hobbes: Social contract. 4.​ Benjamin Franklin: Rationalism. Key Concepts ​ Deism: Belief in a creator God, but no intervention in human affairs. ​ Cosmopolitanism: Cities as centers for idea exchange. ​ Republicanism: Ideal government is a republic with sovereignty of the people. Conflicts between Colonists and Native Americans Pequot War (1636-1638) ​ Conflict over land between New England settlers and Pequot tribes. King Philip’s War ​ Metacom (King Philip) leads resistance against English colonists, resulting in a severe decline in Native American population. ​ Growing racism and fear of indigenous people after the war. The First Great Awakening (1730s-1740s) Overview ​ Traveling evangelists bring new, emotional, personal experiences of religion. ​ Unites people across colonies, though not everyone supports it. New Denominations ​ Emergence of Baptists and Methodists. ​ Encourages women and interracial services. Influential Preachers ​ George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards become prominent figures. Debates ​ Sparks debate between “Old lights” (traditionalists) and “New lights” (reformers). ​ Promotes individualism and questioning authority. The French & Indian War Overview ​ British and French conflict over the Ohio River Valley. ​ British victorious; Treaty of Paris signed, expanding British territory. Proclamation Line of 1763 ​ Limits colonial expansion westward. Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763-1766) ​ Led by Native American prophet Neolin, urging return to traditional ways. ​ Pontiac, an Ottawa leader, leads attacks on British forts and settlers. ​ Conflict seen as a racial struggle, forcing British into negotiations. Revolution Navigation Acts ​ Colonial Trade Restrictions: Colonies can only trade with England. ​ Over 100 years of laws governing colonial trade. ​ Trade limited to British sailors and British systems. Writs of Assistance ​ Customs officials allowed to search for smuggled goods. ​ Smuggling not strictly enforced by England (“not worth it”). Salutary Neglect ​ England governs the colonies but does not enforce all laws or acts. ​ Colonies largely neglected by England during this time. Post-French and Indian War England's Debt ​ England is left in significant debt after the Seven Years' War. Sugar Act ​ Changes: Reduced tax on sugar, aimed to stop illegal smuggling. ​ New measures introduced to combat smuggling. Legal Changes ​ Smugglers caught were tried in British-run courts, not colonial ones. ​ No jury trials; cases handled by "military courts." Impact ​ Primarily affected those involved in trade, not the general public. Stamp Act  ​ First Direct Tax on Colonists: Tax paid by the end consumer. ​ Affected everyday people, requiring paper goods to have an official stamp. →Sparked the Stamp Act Crisis ​ 1765 – Stamp Act Congress: Colonies demand representation in Parliament for tax decisions. ​ Concluded: The right to consent to taxation is essential to freedom. →Colonial Response ​ Boycotts of British goods. ​ Committees of Correspondence formed to spread news quickly across colonies. →Repealed, Declaratory Act ​ Parliament had “full power and authority…in all cases whatsoever.” Townshend Acts ​ New Series of Taxes on Imports: Duties on products like lead, glass, paint, and tea. ​ Strengthened anti-smuggling measures. Changes to Customs Officials and Colonial Governors ​ The Crown begins paying their salaries, shifting power from local colonial governments to the British crown. →Reaction ​ Nonimportation Agreements: Merchants agree not to allow taxed goods on American docks. ​ Committees of Inspection ensure compliance. Nonconsumption ​ Colonists refuse to buy taxed goods, relying on American-made products. ​ Women take responsibility for purchasing decisions. Daughters of Liberty ​ Begin producing their own goods through the homespun movement. Republican Motherhood ​ Women seen as essential to nation-building, responsible for upholding values and passing them onto children. Boston Overview Series of Riots ​ Boston is the colonies' most significant shipping center. ​ Heavy British military presence in the city. 1770 – Boston Massacre ​ Incident began with a snowball fight, escalated when British soldiers fired shots. ​ Used as major PR/propaganda (portrayed as a vicious attack on unarmed Americans). Impact on Independence ​ Did not immediately lead to independence; tensions continued to rise. John Adams' Role ​ Acted as defense lawyer for the British soldiers, arguing they acted on training. ​ Not all colonists supported the Sons of Liberty; some felt their approach was too aggressive. Tea Act Smuggling and Tea Trade ​ Many Americans were drinking smuggled Dutch tea to avoid supporting the taxed tea. ​ The East India Company had a monopoly, forcing Americans to buy from them. Colonial Reaction to Tea Taxes Tea Tax and Colonial Response ​ Despite taxes, tea became cheaper. ​ The government presented it as a "gift" to colonists. ​ Colonists viewed the government and business as too closely connected (“in bed with each other”). ​ They rejected the idea of paying taxes on tea, preferring to destroy it rather than comply. ​ Colonists attempted to prevent tea from entering the harbor to avoid paying taxes. ​ The government issued a 2-day deadline to unload the tea. Boston Tea Party ​ The night before the deadline, colonists dressed as Natives and dumped the tea into the harbor. ​ Some colonists did not support this act, concerned about the destruction of property worth millions and questioning the violent approach. Intolerable Acts/Coercive Acts ​ Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts) - 1774: British response to the Boston Tea Party. ○​ Boston Port Act: Closed Boston Harbor until the East India Company was repaid for lost tea. ○​ Massachusetts Government Act: Suspended Massachusetts' colonial government, increasing British control. ○​ Administration of Justice Act: Allowed British officials accused of crimes to be tried in England. ○​ Quartering Act: Required colonists to house and supply British troops. ○​ Quebec Act: Expanded Quebec's territory and granted religious tolerance to Catholics. ​ Colonial Reaction: Increased resentment toward British rule. ○​ Colonists viewed these acts as a violation of their rights. ○​ Led to the First Continental Congress (1774), where colonial leaders gathered to coordinate resistance. First Continental Congress  ​ Formed the Continental Association. ​ Sent the “Olive Branch” petition to King George. War Begins ​ April 1775 – Battles of Lexington & Concord: ○​ First military engagements of the American Revolution. ○​ Known as the “Shot Heard Round the World.” ○​ Colonial militias (Minute Men) fought against British troops. ○​ Minute Men were local militia members, not professional soldiers. ​ Key Outcome: Marked the beginning of armed conflict between Britain and the colonies. Independence was still not declared at this point. Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation (1775) ​ Royal Governor of Virginia's offer promised freedom to enslaved people who fought for the British Crown. ​ Part of a strategy to weaken the colonial rebellion. ​ Impact on Colonists: Alarmed white Virginians and other colonists. ○​ Feared loss of control over enslaved people. ○​ Indirectly motivated more colonists to support independence. Common Sense by Thomas Paine ​ Used accessible, common language. ​ Critiqued the British government system. ​ Suggested a democratic government, frequent elections, and rights protected by a constitution. War: Colonial Divide ​ Americans were split between Patriots (for independence) and Loyalists (loyal to Britain). British Strategy (Early War) ​ Focused on capturing urban centers to control the rebellion. ​ Aimed to cut off Massachusetts, the heart of the revolution. Key Locations 1.​ New York: Captured by the British in 1776, became a Loyalist stronghold. 2.​ Valley Forge: Winter encampment (1777-78) where the Continental Army endured hardship but emerged stronger. Vive la France: The Marquis de Lafayette ​ French nobleman who volunteered to fight for the American cause. ​ Became a key military leader and advisor to George Washington. Turning Point – Saratoga (1777) ​ American victory convinced France to officially join the war in 1778. ​ Provided crucial military and financial support. French Assistance ​ French Navy helped challenge British control of the seas. ​ French troops, led by General Rochambeau, fought alongside American forces. War Comes South ​ Continental Congress & Slavery: Suggested Georgia & South Carolina free enslaved people to gain more troops; SC & GA refused outright. ​ Southern Campaign: ○​ Dec. 1778 – British captured Savannah, gaining a foothold in the South. ○​ April 1780 – 6 week siege of Charleston, British took the city and thousands of American troops. War of Attrition ​ Strategy of wearing down the British through continuous small battles and resistance. ​ Smaller scale, gorilla warfare up in the mountain regions (we know the land, british don’t)--> successful Final Major Battle ​ 1781 – Battle of Yorktown:  ○​ French on water, Americans on land: American & French forces trapped the British. ○​ 8 day siege, British cannot escape ○​ British surrendered, effectively ending the war. Victory ​ 1783 – Treaty of Paris: ○​ Britain recognized American independence. ○​ Defined U.S. land boundaries (Atlantic to Mississippi River, Great Lakes to Florida). ○​ Promised protection for Loyalists: No persecution, return of confiscated property. ​ Loyalist Exodus: Up to 100,000 Loyalists left for England or Canada.