American History Study Guide PDF

American History Study Guide Please document your answers on a separate sheet of paper, word document, or print this study guide and write directly on it. Once complete, send your answers back to your teacher. Feel free to contact your teacher if you have any questions as you work through the study guide or are ready for a review! 1 Pre-Colonial and Colonial America: Indigenous Peoples and Cultures Before European Contact: The exact timing of the first Americans' arrival in North America remains debated among scholars. Most archaeologists and historians agree that the first Native Americans migrated from Asia to North America between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago, and they are often referred to as Paleo-Indians. However, recent evidence suggests that humans may have been present in the Americas as long as 40,000 years ago. The migration is believed to have occurred during a period of severe cold between 20,000 and 30,000 years ago when ice covered large portions of the oceans and sea levels fell by up to 300 feet. This drastic climate change created a "Land Bridge" known as Beringia, connecting present-day Russia with Alaska and enabling humans to travel from Asia to North America. By the year 1600, it seemed every region had its own flourishing cultures, including the Native American societies of North America, which were as diverse and vibrant as those in Europe. When the British established their presence on the eastern coast of what is now the United States, they were unprepared for the complexity of the native populations they encountered. There are between 140 and 160 distinct American Indian tribes, each with its own language. Communication between tribes, such as the Mohawk of the East and the Zuni of the West, would be as challenging as it would be for Germans to converse with Turks. Twenty-seven U.S. states have names derived from Native American languages. Native Americans domesticated wild plants like corn, potatoes, pumpkins, yams, and lima beans, turning them into staple crops. More than half of the modern American agricultural products were cultivated by Native Americans before British colonization. They were also knowledgeable in medicine, using natural herbs for medicinal purposes, many of which are still in use today. Archaeological evidence shows that Native Americans produced salt through evaporation and mined various minerals such as copper, lead, and coal. Before Europeans arrived in North America, Native peoples inhabited every region. This map shows Native American tribes, culture areas, and linguistic stocks. Contrary to popular myths, not all Native American tribes were peaceful; like Europe, the continent experienced tribal warfare that could lead to significant cultural and human losses. The history of Native Americans is complex, with rich cultures and deep knowledge. The arrival of the British did not simply replace existing cultures with a new way of life; rather, it marked the start of a new civilization that integrated diverse traditions and practices. Since 1492, European explorers and settlers often overlooked the rich diversity of the indigenous peoples already living in the Americas. They commonly used the blanket term "Indian" to refer to all these distinct groups. Even today, this generalization persists. Many of these tribes share common experiences, including the loss of their lands and the hardships of life on reservations. Grouping all Native American tribes under one stereotype overlooks the significant cultural differences among them. For example, the Navajo people of the Southwest and the Cherokee people of the Southeast speak entirely unrelated languages. 2 In North America, there were over 200 tribes, each with its own distinct language. The United States took advantage of the unique Navajo language during World War II. Instead of encrypting radio messages, Navajo speakers communicated in their native language to relay highly secure information. This strategy proved effective. Between 1942 and 1945, about 400 Navajos served as code talkers for the U.S. Marines. They could encode, transmit, and decode a message in a fraction of the time it took a machine – excerpted from the to do the same. And unlike with Navajo Code Talkers' machine codes, the Japanese were Dictionary (revised as of June 15, 1945), never able to break the Navajo code. Department of the Navy Lifestyles among Native American tribes varied widely. While most tribes settled in one place, the Lakota were nomadic, following the buffalo. Many tribes engaged in warfare, but the Apache were particularly feared, while the Hopi were known for their pacifism. Although most societies were male-dominated, Iroquois women had the power to choose their leaders. Native Americans lived in various types of dwellings, such as wigwams, hogans, igloos, tepees, and longhouses. Some tribes primarily relied on hunting and fishing, while others cultivated crops. Leadership structures also differed, with Algonquian chiefs seeking consensus and the Natchez "Sun" serving as an absolute monarch. The totem pole, often associated with Native American culture, was not a universal symbol but was used by tribes like the Chinook in the Pacific Northwest for spiritual and familial representation. PRACTICE: Match each description on the left with the correct term on the right. Write the letter of the term that matches each description. 1. ______ The term often used to describe the first Native Americans who migrated from Asia to North America. 2. ______ The period during which a "Land Bridge" allowed humans to migrate from Asia to North America. 3. ______ The name of the land connection between Asia and North America Terms: during the last Ice Age. A. Beringia 4. ______ The European power that established a presence on the eastern B. Code Talkers coast of the modern United States. C. Corn 5. ______ The strategy used by the U.S. Marines during World War II, which D. Paleo-Indians involved Native American language speakers. E. Women 6. ______ The group that had the power to choose leaders among the Iroquois. F. British 7. ______ A dwelling type used by various Native American tribes, G. Totem Pole characterized by its round, domed structure. H. Wigwam 8. ______ A symbol often associated with Native American culture, used by I. "Indian" Pacific Northwest tribes. J. Ice Age 9. ______ A common crop domesticated by Native Americans and still widely grown today. 10. ______ A general term historically used by Europeans to describe all Native American tribes. 3 Exploration and Colonization of the North America: From the 10th century onward, merchant ships carried valuable Key Term: goods between the port cities of Western Europe and the East along Silk Road: An ancient trade route, trade routes known collectively as the Silk Road. However, linking China with the West, that transporting goods via the Silk Road was expensive, slow, and not carried goods and ideas between the very profitable. Muslim intermediaries imposed taxes as the goods two great civilizations of Rome and changed hands, and robbers often ambushed the caravans carrying China. treasures. Sailors were eager to find a water route to the rich cities of the East and the exotic, wealthy Spice Islands in modern- day Indonesia, whose location was a closely guarded secret by Muslim rulers. The prospect of profit motivated explorers to discover new trade routes to these Spice Islands and bypass the Muslim middlemen. Rivalry between the Portuguese and the Spanish spurred both countries to colonize rapidly and assertively. In the 1400s, Prince Henry the Navigator led Portugal's exploration of Africa and the Atlantic. Portuguese sailors successfully charted an eastward route to West Africa, where they established a trading presence. Portugal then expanded its empire along the western coast of Africa, reaching the Congo, the western coast of India, and eventually Brazil and the Atlantic islands. Although Portugal did not control a vast land area, their strategic holdings of islands and coastal ports allowed them to dominate maritime trade routes. The Portuguese traders' voyages to West Africa introduced them to the established African slave trade, which was already widespread in the region and supported by sugar production on newly colonized Atlantic islands. Recognizing the vast global market for sugar, the Portuguese began Henry the Navigator. Image credit: transporting enslaved people across the Atlantic to work on sugar Wikimedia Commons plantations. The Portuguese fort Elmina Castle, in modern-day Ghana, served more as a holding facility for enslaved Africans from the interior than a trading post, as the demand for slave labor surged in both Europe and the New World. Portuguese colonization in the 1400s marked the beginning of aggressive European expansion across the Atlantic. Feeling threatened by the Portuguese monopoly on enslaved Africans and their expansion in the Atlantic, the Spanish launched their own colonization efforts with Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1492. This rivalry between the two nations spurred more Europeans to join the race to the New World. The Thirteen Colonies and Their Development: The 13 colonies were a series of settlements that eventually formed the original states of the United States of America. Nearly all were established by the English and were situated along the East Coast of North America. In Christopher Columbus. Image credit: 1776, these colonies declared their independence from Great Britain. The Wikimedia Commons colonies were named Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia. In 1607, English settlers established Jamestown, Virginia, marking the first permanent English settlement in North America. Virginia became a royal colony in 1624. The Pilgrims, a group of Puritans, founded Plymouth, the second English colony, in 1620. New Hampshire was settled in 1623 and officially named in 1629. 4 In 1630, another group of Puritans established the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Massachusetts governed New Hampshire from 1641 to 1679, and in 1691, Plymouth was incorporated into Massachusetts. During the 1630s, some Massachusetts colonists moved to Connecticut, which became an official colony in 1662. Another group led by the minister Roger Williams founded Rhode Island in 1636, seeking religious freedom from Massachusetts. Maryland was established by a group of Roman Catholics in 1634. Other European settlers also founded colonies. The Dutch established New Netherland in 1624, while the Swedish settled in Delaware, part of New Sweden, in 1638. The Dutch and Swedish also settled in what is now New Jersey. In the 1650s, the Dutch took control of Swedish territories, but by 1664, the English had seized all Dutch lands. From then until independence, all colonies were ruled by the British monarchy. New Netherland was renamed New York by the British, and New York governed New Jersey until 1738. In 1681, English Quaker leader William Penn established Pennsylvania, and Delaware became part of Pennsylvania the following year. Delaware later formed its own government but remained under Pennsylvania's jurisdiction until independence. The Carolina region became an English colony in 1663, and in 1729, it was divided into North and South Carolina. Georgia, the final of the original 13 colonies, was settled in 1733. During the majority of British rule, the colonies enjoyed significant autonomy. They established their own systems of self-government and developed distinct societal and economic structures. However, tensions between Britain and the American colonies escalated following the French and Indian War (1754–63). The British government sought to impose taxes on the colonists to cover the war's expenses, but the colonists resisted, arguing that they should not be taxed without representation in the British Parliament. These conflicts ultimately contributed to the onset of the American Revolution. Colonial societies and economies differed by region, based on motivations for settlement and environment. PRACTICE: Circle the correct answer to the questions below. 11. Which of the following was the first permanent 12. Which colony was established by the Puritans known English settlement in North America? as the Pilgrims in 1620? A) Plymouth A) Massachusetts B) Jamestown B) Rhode Island C) New Amsterdam C) Plymouth D) Savannah D) Connecticut 14. Which colony was established in 1636 by a group of 13. In which year did William Penn establish the colony settlers led by Roger Williams who sought religious of Pennsylvania? freedom from the Puritans of Massachusetts? A) 1662 A) Rhode Island B) 1636 B) Connecticut C) 1681 C) Maryland D) 1733 D) New Hampshire 5 Colonial economies, society, and government Political Structure: During the colonial period, the colonies shared many similarities in their governance. Most colonies operated under Royal charters granted by Parliament or the British monarch and had a Royal governor appointed by the King, who held ultimate authority. Additionally, most colonies had their own colonial assemblies, made up of elected officials who managed local affairs. This system generally operated smoothly, with colonists benefiting from British protection and resources, including the British military. Local issues and politics were often discussed in town taverns, which served as social hubs for community debate. Economic Diversity: The economies of the colonies varied greatly by region. New England's economy was driven by fishing, trade, and subsistence farming due to its rocky soil, which was unsuitable for large-scale agriculture. Major port cities like Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charles Town were central to trade with the Caribbean and Europe. The Middle colonies had a more balanced economy with a mix of farming and trade, while the Southern colonies were predominantly agrarian, relying heavily on plantation agriculture and forced labor. African slavery, which began in North America in 1619, became increasingly integral to the Southern economy, though initially, indentured servitude was more common. Family Influence: Family ties were crucial in shaping colonial townships and businesses. Among the wealthy, arranged marriages helped consolidate and preserve family wealth. For instance, George Washington's marriage to Martha Dandridge Custis significantly increased his wealth through her inheritance. For the lower classes, family connections played a key role in community development, with many rural families intermarrying to form close-knit communities. However, regional and cultural differences persisted, as seen in New Jersey's division between East and West Jersey and varying economic and cultural practices. Religious Diversity: Colonial America was religiously diverse, with Christianity being dominant but not exclusive. Puritans settled in New England, Quakers established communities in Pennsylvania and southern New Jersey, and other Protestant sects like Anglicans, Lutherans, and Methodists emerged. Native Americans practiced various spiritual traditions, while African slaves maintained their indigenous beliefs or blended them with Christianity. Jewish and Muslim communities existed as minorities, and Deism gained popularity among Enlightenment thinkers. The diversity of religious practices underscored the importance of religious freedom, which James Madison later included in the First Amendment of the Bill of Rights. Gender Roles: Gender roles in colonial America were distinctly defined. Men were expected to provide for their families through careers as artisans, merchants, or military service, though military careers offered limited financial stability. Women primarily managed households and child-rearing, with limited opportunities for education and no political rights. They could inherit property but had few rights beyond managing it. Children from wealthy families received education and pursued careers in law, medicine, or the military, while less affluent children began working as apprentices or helping with farm chores. Large families were common in farming communities to manage labor needs and cope with high mortality rates. Interactions between Native Americans and European settlers The nature of interactions between Europeans and Native Americans varied significantly depending on economic, social, and political factors. Although Europeans generally viewed Native Americans as inferior due to differences in religion, agriculture, housing, and dress, the French, Spanish, and Dutch recognized the importance of Native Americans in their pursuit of wealth and resources. Economic interests and religious conversion efforts were the primary drivers of these interactions. 6 The Spanish: Spain, a dominant power in both Europe and the Americas, sought to exploit the New World’s resources. After enslaving indigenous people in the Caribbean and the southern Americas for agriculture and mining, the Spanish expanded into North America, focusing on what is now the southwestern and southeastern United States. In Florida, Spain established a military post at San Augustín (now St. Augustine), though only a few Spaniards settled there. Catholic missionaries worked to convert the Guale and Timucuan peoples, achieving some success in transforming them into farmers. However, many natives retained their own religious and cultural practices. Epidemics brought by the Spanish led to a decline in the indigenous population. Throughout the Spanish colonial era, San Augustín remained a small outpost where trade and intermarriage between Spanish men and Native American women were common. The French: New France, like Spanish North America, attracted few French settlers. Instead of enslaving Native Americans, the French established trade relationships with tribes such as the Huron, Montagnais, and Algonquin along the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. The French traded textiles, weapons, and metal goods for furs, which enhanced the power of traditional clan leaders. Jesuit missionaries converted many Huron by learning local languages and demonstrating bravery. French officials also incentivized conversion by allowing Christian Hurons to purchase French muskets. In the eighteenth century, competition between the Dutch and English for trade and territory provided local tribes with continued leverage as they played these European powers against each other. The Dutch: The Dutch focused primarily on trade rather than religious conversion in their dealings with Native Americans. They established a fur trade alliance with the Iroquois Confederacy, the dominant Native American power in 17th-century North America. Despite suffering from European diseases like smallpox, the Iroquois remained strong through their advantageous alliance with the Dutch, which helped them defeat the Huron, their major rivals. Native Americans: Native Americans strategically used the rivalries among European powers to strengthen their own political and economic positions. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1664, England seized control of New Netherland and renamed it New York. The Iroquois quickly formed an alliance with the English while maintaining friendly relations with the French and welcoming Jesuit missionaries. They adeptly played the French and English against each other until the English ultimately drove the French out of North America at the end of the French and Indian War (1763). Photograph of woodcut by North Wind Picture Archives 7 American Revolution and the Early Republic: The Revolutionary War (1775-83), also known as the American Revolution, emerged from escalating conflicts between the inhabitants of Great Britain's 13 North American colonies and the colonial government representing the British crown. The armed struggle began in April 1775 with skirmishes between British soldiers and colonial militiamen in Lexington and Concord. By the summer of that year, the conflict had escalated into a full-scale war for independence. In 1778, France joined the American Revolution in support of the colonists, transforming the conflict from a civil war into an international struggle. French aid played a crucial role in the Continental Army’s victory over the British at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. Although the Americans had effectively secured their independence by this point, the war did not officially conclude until 1783. Causes of the Revolutionary War Key Events: For over a decade before the American Revolution erupted in 1775, growing Stamp Act of 1765: The act required tensions existed between the colonists and British authorities. the colonists to pay a tax, The French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), represented by a stamp, on various expanded British territories but left the crown with significant debt, leading forms of papers, documents, and to unpopular new taxes. Efforts by the British government to raise revenue playing cards. through colonial taxes—such as the Stamp Act of 1765, the Townshend Acts Townshend Acts of 1767: Initiated of 1767, and the Tea Act of 1773—were met with strong resistance from taxes on glass, lead, paint, paper, many colonists. They resented their lack of representation in Parliament and tea. and demanded the same rights as other British subjects. Tea Act of 1773: The act granted the company the right to ship its tea Colonial opposition turned violent in 1770, when British soldiers fired into a directly to the colonies without first crowd of colonists, killing five men in what became known as the Boston landing it in England, and to Massacre. In December 1773, a group of Bostonians, disguised to conceal commission agents who would have their identities, boarded British ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into the sole right to sell tea in the Boston Harbor to avoid paying taxes on this tea. This event is referred to as colonies. the Boston Tea Party. In response, Parliament enacted punitive measures, Intolerable or Coercive Acts: A known as the Intolerable or Coercive Acts, aimed at reasserting control over series of four laws passed by the Massachusetts. British Parliament to punish Massachusetts Bay for the Boston In reaction, a group of colonial delegates, including George Washington of Tea Party. The acts were intended to Virginia, John and Samuel Adams of force the rebellious colonies back Massachusetts, Patrick Henry of Virginia, and John Jay of New York, into place, but instead they helped convened in Philadelphia in September 1774. set the two sides on the path to the Revolutionary War. The First Continental Congress expressed their grievances, denouncing The First Continental Congress: A taxation without representation and the presence of the British army in the meeting of delegates from 12 of the colonies without consent. 13 American colonies. Although the Congress did not call for independence, it issued a declaration of fundamental rights, including life, liberty, property, assembly, and trial by jury. They resolved to reconvene in May 1775 to discuss further actions, but by then, conflict had already begun. On the night of April 18, 1775, hundreds of British troops marched from Boston to Concord, Massachusetts, to seize a cache of arms. Paul Revere, Sybil Ludington, and other riders alerted the colonial militias, who mobilized to intercept the British. On April 19, the Battles of Lexington and Concord marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War with the “shot heard round the world.” 8 Declaring Independence (1775-76) When the Second Continental Congress met in Key Terms: Philadelphia, delegates—including newcomers Benjamin Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790): A statesman, Franklin and Thomas Jefferson—voted to establish a author, publisher, scientist, inventor, diplomat and one Continental Army, appointing George Washington as its of the leading figures of early American history. commander in chief. On June 17, in the first major battle of the Revolution, colonial forces inflicted significant Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826): Author of the casualties on General William Howe’s British troops at Declaration of Independence and the third U.S. Breed’s Hill in Boston. Known as the Battle of Bunker Hill, president, and was a leading figure in America’s early the encounter ended in a British victory but boosted the development. revolutionary cause. Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775): One of the early and significant conflicts of the American Throughout the fall and winter, Washington’s troops Revolutionary War. The British forces ultimately won struggled to keep the British forces contained in Boston. the battle by taking the high ground, they suffered However, the tide began to turn in late winter when heavy casualties, demonstrating the determination and artillery captured at Fort Ticonderoga in New York shifted resilience of the colonial forces and boosting the the balance. In March 1776, the British evacuated the city, revolutionary cause. with Howe and his forces retreating to Canada to prepare for a major invasion of New York. By June 1776, as the Declaration of Independence: The first formal Revolutionary War intensified, a growing majority of statement by a nation’s people asserting their right to colonists began to support independence from Britain. choose their own government. On July 4, the Continental Congress adopted the John Adams (1735-1826): A leader of the American Declaration of Independence, drafted by a five-man Revolution and served as the second U.S. president committee that included Franklin and John Adams, with from 1797 to 1801. Was a critic of Great Britain’s Jefferson as the principal author. authority in colonial America and viewed the British imposition of high taxes and tariffs as a tool of oppression. Determined to crush the rebellion, the British government dispatched a large fleet and over 34,000 troops to New York that same month. In August, Howe’s forces overwhelmed the Continental Army on Long Island, forcing Washington to evacuate his troops from New York City by September. After retreating across the Delaware River, Washington launched a surprise attack on Trenton, New Jersey, on Christmas night, securing a victory. He followed this with another triumph at Princeton, reviving the rebels’ hopes before settling into winter quarters at Morristown. Saratoga: Revolutionary War Turning Point (1777-78) In 1777, the British strategy aimed to divide New England, the stronghold of the rebellion, from the other colonies through a two-pronged attack. General John Burgoyne's army marched south from Canada to meet up with General Howe's forces on the Hudson River, but Howe diverted his troops south to confront Washington's army near the Chesapeake Bay, resulting in British victories at Brandywine Creek and the capture of Philadelphia. Meanwhile, Burgoyne’s forces were left vulnerable and were decisively defeated by American troops under General Horatio Gates at the Battles of Saratoga in September and October. Burgoyne's surrender on October 17 marked a turning point in the war, leading to France's open alliance with the American cause, which shifted the American Revolution into a global conflict. Stalemate in the North, Battle in the South (1778-81) Key Term: During the harsh winter at Valley Forge, Washington's troops gained Battle of Saratoga: Fought in September and valuable training and discipline from Prussian officer Baron Friedrich October 1777, was a decisive victory for the von Steuben and the leadership of French aristocrat Marquis de Continental Army and a crucial turning point Lafayette. On June 28, 1778, as British forces under Sir Henry Clinton in the Revolutionary War. (Howe's successor) attempted to withdraw from Philadelphia to New York, Washington's 9 army engaged them near Monmouth, New Jersey. Though the battle ended in a draw, with the Americans holding their ground, Clinton successfully led his troops and supplies to New York. The arrival of a French fleet under the Comte d’Estaing off the Atlantic coast in July signaled further French involvement, but a joint attack on Newport, Rhode Island, later that month failed, leading to a stalemate in the North. From 1779 to 1781, the Americans faced several challenges, including the defection of General Benedict Arnold to the British and the first major mutinies within the Continental Army. In the South, the British seized Georgia by early 1779 and captured Charleston, South Carolina, in May 1780. British forces under Lord Charles Cornwallis then launched an offensive, defeating Gates' American troops at Camden in August, though the Americans secured a victory against Loyalists at King’s Mountain in October. Nathanael Greene replaced Gates as the Southern commander in December, and under Greene's command, General Daniel Morgan won a key victory against British forces led by Colonel Banastre Tarleton at Cowpens, South Carolina, on January 17, 1781. The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 13, 1782, by John Singleton Copley PRACTICE: Answer the questions below in complete sentences. 15. What event marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War, and why is it significant? 16. How did the outcome of the Battle of Saratoga in 1777 influence the American Revolution? 17. Describe the impact of the winter at Valley Forge on the Continental Army and the subsequent military engagement at Monmouth, New Jersey. 10 Revolutionary War Draws to a Close (1781-83) By the fall of 1781, American forces under Greene had pushed Cornwallis Key Terms: and his troops back to Virginia's Yorktown peninsula, near the Chesapeake Bay. Supported by General Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau's French army and Battle of Yorktown (Oct. 1781): Marked a a fleet of 36 French warships that blocked British reinforcement or escape, decisive moment in the American Revolution when General Cornwallis, Washington advanced on Yorktown with about 14,000 soldiers. Surrounded surrounded and outnumbered, surrendered and outmatched, Cornwallis was compelled to surrender his entire army on his British army to General Washington and October 19. Feigning illness, Cornwallis sent his deputy, Charles O’Hara, to French forces led by Rochambeau. The victory effectively ended major combat in surrender his sword, which was accepted by Washington’s deputy, Benjamin the war and led to the eventual recognition Lincoln, after Rochambeau deferred to Washington. of American independence. Treaty of Paris (Sept. 3, 1783): Formally While the American victory at Yorktown was a major turning point, it was not ended the American Revolutionary War, immediately seen as the decisive end of the war. British forces still occupied with Great Britain recognizing the Charleston and maintained a strong presence in New York. Over the next two independence of the United States. The treaty also established new boundaries for years, neither side engaged in significant military action, but the British the United States and settled issues withdrawal from Charleston and Savannah in late 1782 signaled the war's between Britain, France, and Spain, marking conclusion. Preliminary peace terms were signed in Paris in November 1782, the conclusion of eight years of conflict. and on September 3, 1783, Great Britain officially recognized American independence in the Treaty of Paris. Simultaneously, Britain signed separate peace treaties with France and Spain, bringing the American Revolution to a close after eight years. The Declaration of Independence (1776) By adopting the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, the 13 American colonies broke away from Great Britain. This declaration explained their reasons for seeking independence and allowed them to form an official alliance with France, securing crucial French support in their fight against Britain. In the 1760s and early 1770s, North American colonists clashed with British policies on taxation and frontier control. As protests led to harsher British measures, like closing Boston's port and declaring martial law, the colonies organized a Continental Congress to coordinate a boycott of British goods and resistance against British forces. Despite some loyalist sentiment and initial hopes for reconciliation, the Continental Congress increasingly saw independence as the only viable option. In late 1775, Benjamin Franklin signaled to French agents that the colonies were leaning toward independence to gain French support. By early 1776, with the British Parliament blocking trade and Thomas Paine’s pamphlet *Common Sense* promoting independence, the Continental Congress began drafting a declaration of independence. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee proposed independence, leading Congress to form a committee, with Thomas Jefferson tasked to draft the declaration. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams reviewed Thomas Jefferson’s draft of the Declaration of Independence, keeping most of it but removing controversial parts, such as those blaming King George III for the slave trade and criticisms of the British people. The final draft was presented to Congress on June 28, 1776, and adopted on July 4. The British government dismissed the Declaration as a minor issue, commissioning propagandists to criticize it and counter the colonists’ arguments. While some in Britain and Ireland supported the Declaration, its major impact was diplomatic. The U.S. gained formal recognition from France with the 1778 Treaty of Alliance, the Netherlands in 1782, and Spain, which recognized U.S. independence with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, ending the Revolutionary War and officially acknowledging the United States as an The Declaration of Independence independent nation. 11 Articles of Confederation (1777–1781) The Articles of Confederation were the first written plan for the U.S. government after gaining independence from Great Britain. They created a weak central government that mostly, but not completely, stopped the states from doing their own foreign diplomacy. The Albany Plan was an early attempt to unite the colonies but failed because the colonies were worried about losing power. As the American Revolution progressed, leaders saw the need for a strong central government to manage the war. In 1775, New York proposed a plan to the Continental Congress, which still acknowledged British authority. Benjamin Franklin had created a draft for the "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union," which some delegates supported but others opposed. Although Franklin introduced the plan in July 1775, Congress set it aside. After declaring independence, Congress realized the need for a national government and began working on the Articles of Confederation. Disagreements over-representation and state claims delayed progress until October 1777, when the Articles were finalized and sent to the states for ratification. The Articles of Confederation Virginia ratified the Articles in December 1777, followed by other states in early 1778. However, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey initially refused to ratify. Maryland’s hesitation, largely due to unresolved western land claims, prompted some states to consider forming a government without it. However, efforts to persuade Maryland continued, and after Virginia agreed to give up its land claims, Maryland ratified the Articles on March 1, 1781. On January 10, 1781, the Continental Congress established a Department of Foreign Affairs and elected Robert R. Livingston as Secretary of Foreign Affairs on August 10. The Secretary was responsible for communicating with U.S. representatives and foreign ministers, relaying Congress’s instructions, and participating in Congress sessions. The Articles of Confederation set up a national government but struggled to enforce limits on states' diplomacy. For example, Georgia pursued its own policy in Spanish Florida, and the Confederation government could not prevent the British from sending convicts to former colonies or enforce the Treaty of Paris, which allowed British creditors to sue for pre-Revolutionary debts. These issues, along with the government’s weak response to Shays' Rebellion, highlighted the need for a stronger central government, leading to the Constitutional Convention and the creation of the current U.S. Constitution. Constitutional Convention and Ratification (1787–1789) Key Term: The Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia from May to Shay’s Rebellion: An armed uprising in 1786- September 1787 to fix the weak central government set up by the 1787 led by Daniel Shays and other Articles of Confederation. The new U.S. Constitution created a stronger discontented farmers in Massachusetts, federal government with clearer powers, including handling foreign protesting economic hardships and high taxes. The rebellion highlighted the relations, and established a system where the executive branch weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation manages these affairs while the legislative branch handles treaty and increased calls for a stronger central ratification. The Constitution took effect in 1789 after enough states government. ratified it and has been the foundation of the U.S. government ever since. Under the Articles of Confederation, the federal government struggled with foreign policy due to its lack of power to enforce laws that states might oppose. The 1783 Treaty of Paris required Americans to honor debts to British creditors and allowed British loyalists to reclaim property, but many states resisted, causing British troops to stay in U.S. forts. 12 British goods flooded U.S. markets, harming American businesses, and the Confederation Congress couldn't regulate trade or resolve issues with states imposing their own import duties. Additionally, Spain blocked American ships from using the Mississippi River, leading to conflicts between northern and southern delegates over how to handle the situation. To address issues like debt repayment and domestic problems, the Constitutional Convention delegates created a government with checks and balances by dividing power among the Legislative, Judicial, and Executive branches. Initially, the Constitution envisioned a strong legislature and a weak presidency, but as discussions progressed, the Executive branch gained more authority, including the power to handle foreign relations. The Constitution didn't specify executive departments, but Congress quickly established the Department of State in 1789 to manage both foreign and domestic duties. The effectiveness of this new structure would be tested in 1794 with the Senate's review of John Jay's treaty with Great Britain. The Constitutional Convention in The U.S. Constitution Philadelphia The ratification of the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights The U.S. Constitution, signed on September 17, 1787, established the national government, fundamental laws, and basic rights for citizens. It replaced the weak Articles of Confederation by creating a stronger federal government with three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—and a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power. By September 1787, the five-member Committee of Style, including Hamilton, Madison, and others, completed the final draft of the Constitution, which was about 4,200 words long. On September 17, George Washington was the first to sign, with 39 of the 55 delegates signing the document. Three delegates—George Mason, Edmund Randolph, and Elbridge Gerry—refused to sign. For the Constitution to become law, it needed approval from nine of the 13 states. James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay wrote "The Federalist Papers," a series of 85 essays promoting the Constitution, published under the name Publius in newspapers starting in fall 1787. Federalists supported the Constitution, while Anti-Federalists opposed it, fearing it granted too much power to the national government. In September 1789, the first U.S. Congress approved 12 amendments to the Constitution and sent them to the states for approval. These amendments aimed to protect basic rights, including freedom of speech, press, assembly, and religion; the right to a fair trial and to bear arms; and to ensure that any powers not given to the federal government would remain with the states and the people. 13 The Bill of Rights, influenced by the English Bill of Rights and Virginia’s Declaration of Rights by George Mason, was designed to protect individual freedoms. Mason, a strong advocate for personal liberties, criticized the Key Term: original Constitution for lacking these protections. In the debate over The English Bill of Rights: Enacted in 1689, ratification, he and others agreed to support the Constitution if amendments established key principles of constitutional were added. monarchy and limited the powers of the king, including guaranteeing certain individual On December 15, 1791, Virginia became the 10th state to ratify 10 of the 12 rights and freedoms. It laid the groundwork proposed amendments, making the Bill of Rights official. The two unratified for future democratic principles by affirming amendments included one about representation based on population and the rights of Parliament and the rule of law. another about congressional pay changes, with the latter eventually ratified in 1992. The early presidencies George Washington Term: 1789-1797, Party: none During his two terms as president, George Washington played a key role in setting up the new U.S. government. He oversaw the addition of the Bill of Rights to the Constitution, established a presidential cabinet, and appointed the first Supreme Court and district court judges. In foreign affairs, Washington signed the Jay Treaty in 1795 to ease tensions with Britain and avoid another war. Although the Constitution didn't set term limits for the presidency, Washington set the two-term precedent by stepping down after his second term. When Washington was elected president, political parties did not exist. However, during his presidency, he noticed increasing divisions between federalists and anti-federalists in his cabinet, especially over issues like the national bank. Concerned that political parties could negatively impact U.S. politics, Washington warned against the dangers of party spirit in his farewell address. John Adams Term: 1797-1801, Party: Federalist John Adams, the only Federalist president and the first to live in the White House, marked the start of America's first political party system. In the 1796 election, Adams defeated Thomas Jefferson, a Republican, and supported a strong federal government with a flexible interpretation of the Constitution. Adams took bold, unpopular steps, such as negotiating peace with France despite his party's desire for war. This decision likely cost him reelection but helped avoid an unnecessary and costly conflict. Key Terms: The Louisiana Purchase: A land deal in 1803 where the United States bought a vast territory from France, doubling the size of the country. This acquisition, stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, opened up extensive new lands for exploration and settlement. The Lewis and Clark Expedition: Led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark from 1804 to 1806, was a journey to explore and map the newly acquired Louisiana Territory. Sponsored by President Thomas Jefferson, the expedition aimed to find a route to the Pacific Ocean and gather information about the land and its inhabitants. 14 Thomas Jefferson Term: 1801-1809, Party: Democratic-Republican During his first term, Thomas Jefferson completed the Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803, which doubled the size of the United States. He also sponsored the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore this new land. In his second term, Jefferson focused on keeping the U.S. neutral in conflicts between France and Great Britain to avoid getting involved in European wars. James Madison Term: 1809-1817, Party: Democratic-Republican James Madison's presidency was largely defined by the War of 1812. Madison declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812, due to British trade restrictions and impressment of American sailors. Despite suffering significant losses, such as the burning of Washington, D.C., in 1814, the U.S. also achieved major victories, including the Battle of New Orleans. James Monroe Term: 1817-1825, Party: Democratic-Republican James Monroe's presidency is known as the "Era of Good Feelings" due to the surge of national pride after American successes in the War of 1812. Monroe's presidency focused on unity and goodwill, highlighted by his tour across the country and his 1820 Missouri Compromise, which balanced the entry of Missouri as a slave state with Maine as a free state and limited slavery's expansion. His 1823 Monroe Doctrine declared that the U.S. would not allow further European colonization in the Americas, shaping American foreign policy for years. John Quincy Adams Term: 1825-1829, Party: National Republican John Quincy Adams, the son of former President John Adams, faced renewed partisan conflict during his presidency. He narrowly won the 1824 election over Andrew Jackson, but his term was marked by party divisions and unsuccessful initiatives, though he did oversee the completion of the Erie Canal, which improved shipping in the Midwest. 15 Andrew Jackson Term: 1829-1837, Party: Democrat Andrew Jackson was the first president from a humble background, having grown up in poverty in Tennessee with little formal education. He became famous for his victory at the Battle of New Orleans and founded the Democratic Party after losing to John Quincy Adams in 1824. Jackson was known for his strong stance on states’ rights and slavery and used the presidential veto more than any previous president, vetoing 12 bills in total. His presidency is noted for the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which led to the forced relocation of Native American tribes along the Trail of Tears. Key Terms: Martin Van Buren The Missouri Compromise of 1820: Admitted Missouri as Term: 1837-1841, Party: Democrat a slave state and Maine as a free state to maintain the balance between slave and free states. It also Martin Van Buren was the first established a boundary line at 36°30' north latitude, U.S. president born as an north of which slavery was prohibited in the remaining American citizen, unlike earlier Louisiana Territory. presidents who were born under The Monroe Doctrine: Issued in 1823, declared that the British rule. His single term was Western Hemisphere was off-limits to European overshadowed by the Panic of colonization and interference. It established the principle that the U.S. would not tolerate European 1837, a major economic involvement in the affairs of the Americas and became a depression caused by previous key element of American foreign policy. policies of Andrew Jackson, which Battle of New Orleans: Took place on January 8, 1815, hurt Van Buren's popularity. and was the final major battle of the War of 1812. American forces, led by General Andrew Jackson, achieved a decisive victory against the British, boosting American morale and solidifying Jackson's national reputation. William Henry Harrison Term: 1841, Party: Whig William Henry Harrison had the shortest presidency in U.S. history, lasting only 32 days. He fell ill with a cold on his inauguration day, March 4, 1841, and died of pneumonia a month later on April 4, 1841, becoming the first president to die in office. John Tyler Term: 1841-1845, Party: Whig Vice President John Tyler became president after Harrison’s death, making him the first VP to succeed to the presidency without an election. Tyler was also the first president to face impeachment when his own party tried to remove him after he vetoed bills for a central bank, but the attempt failed and he was expelled from the Whig Party. Major events during his presidency included the annexation of Texas and the Treaty of Wangxia, the first formal trade agreement between the U.S. and China. 16 Key Term: The Whig Party: A political party active in the United States from the 1830s to the 1850s, opposing the policies of President Andrew Jackson and advocating for a stronger federal government and economic modernization. The party dissolved in the 1850s, with many members joining the newly formed Republican Party. Expansion and Reform Westward Expansion & Manifest Destiny The term "manifest destiny" came about in the 1800s, but the idea behind it started earlier with the first European settlers in America, like the English Puritans. Manifest destiny means the belief that America is unique and has a special role in the world. When the Puritans arrived in 1630, they thought their survival in the New World showed God's approval. Their leader, John Winthrop, gave a sermon called "A Modell of Christian Charity" as they approached the shore, explaining that their new settlement would be a model for others. He described their community as a "city upon a hill" for everyone to see and recalled the Bible's command to "be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it." This belief continued into the 1700s, especially after America gained independence from Britain, which many saw as a sign of God's favor and a proof of American exceptionalism. The term "manifest destiny" became popular in 1845 when journalist John Louis O’Sullivan wrote that it was America’s destiny to take over the entire continent. He believed that this was a God-given right for spreading liberty and self-government. In the 1800s, this idea was used to justify taking land from Native Americans and expanding American territory. People believed that, just like the Puritans who saw themselves as a “city upon a hill,” it was America's mission to show the world how to govern and develop land. This belief led to the forceful displacement of native peoples and the expansion of American land for profit and progress. U.S. Territorial Expansion European settlers who came to America believed that acquiring land was key to their future success. After buying the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 and exploring it with Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, Americans became even more eager to expand. The Louisiana Purchase, which tripled the size of the country, set off a wave of territorial growth. Over the next fifty years, the U.S. added land rapidly: Texas joined in 1845, a treaty with Britain in 1846 gave the U.S. the Oregon Territory, the 1848 war with Mexico added 17 California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah, and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853 finalized the southern borders of New Mexico and Arizona. In 1846, Walt Whitman commented on this expansion, suggesting that soon California and other new territories would become important parts of the nation. Expansion and the Artwork Emmanuel Gottlieb Leutze's mural study for the Capitol in Washington, D.C. celebrates the idea of Manifest Destiny just when the Civil War threatened the republic. The surging crowd of figures in the painting records the births, deaths, and battles fought as European Americans settled the continent to the edge of the Pacific. Like Moses and the Israelites who appear in the ornate borders of the canvas, these pioneers stand at the threshold of the Promised Land, ready to fulfill what many nineteenth-century Americans believed was God's plan for the nation. Leutze's painting depicts westward expansion as a difficult task leading to a heavenly reward represented by the fertile golden valley below. Yet actual pioneers made the overland trek, either by wagon or train, only to discover that the so-called Promised Land at the end of their journey was a lonely, inhospitable place. In Six Years on the Border, or, Sketches of Frontier Life (1883) Mrs. J.B. Rideout describes how her family had left New England for the West because they "had heard of a village on the banks of a beautiful river, surrounded by a rich country fast filling up with intelligent people..." After the hazardous trip overland, the Rideouts arrived at their destination: We reached the town of which we had read such glowing accounts before leaving the East... and as I stood in the village which had appeared to my imagination in so many different forms, feeling homesick and discouraged, I looked around and counted the buildings. One blacksmith's shop, one small store, one dwelling-house and two little cabins... Pioneers traveling to Oregon or California usually took five to six months, covering about fifteen miles a day. Along the way, they faced conflicts with Native Americans and diseases like cholera and typhoid fever. When winter snows trapped them in the mountains, pioneers sometimes had to kill their mules and oxen for food and continue on foot. Despite these hardships, painter Emanuel Leutze created a heroic image of westward migration. To capture the realism of the Pacific Coast Mountains, Leutze traveled to the Rocky Mountains, specifically Pike’s Peak in Colorado, in August 1861. His goal was to depict the "grand peaceful conquest of the great west" in a truthful and detailed manner. Leutze's sketches were so accurate that little to no changes were needed when creating the final mural. He wrote to Capitol engineer Montgomery C. Meigs, saying he believed his trip to Colorado provided a more authentic view of the West than if he had gone all the way to California. 18 Key Terms: American exceptionalism: the theory that the U.S. is inherently different from other countries. Expansionism: the belief that a country should grow larger; a policy of increasing a country’s size by expanding its territory. Gadsden Purchase: the U.S. acquisition of a region in present-day Arizona and New Mexico via a treaty signed on December 30, 1853 between the United States and Mexico. The purchase’s purpose was so that the U.S. could build a southern route for the Transcontinental Railroad. This was the last territorial acquisition in the contiguous United States. The purchase is also known as the Sale of Mesilla. John Louis O’Sullivan: (1813-1895) American editor who coined the phrase “manifest destiny” in 1845 to promote the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of the Oregon territory. John Winthrop: (1587-1649) English Puritan lawyer who led the first wave of Puritan immigrants to America in 1630. Manifest destiny: the nineteenth-century doctrine or belief that the expansion of the U.S. throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable. Meriwether Lewis: (1774-1809) American explorer, soldier, and politician. He is most well known for his role in the Lewis and Clark Expedition, exploring the land acquired in the Louisiana Purchase. Montgomery C. Meigs: (1816-1892) U.S. Army officer, civil engineer, and Quartermaster General during the Civil War. Meigs had a role in building many landmarks including the U.S. Capitol Building and Arlington National Cemetery. Puritans: members of a sect of English Reformed Protestantism which emerged from the Church of England in the 16th century. Puritans, believing the church only partially reformed, sought to rid the church from all Roman Catholic practices. They practiced and advocated for greater strictness in religious discipline and for the simplification of doctrine and worship. Large-scale Puritan migration from England to America occurred from 1620 to 1640. Walt Whitman: (1819-1892) American poet and journalist. William Clark: (1770-1838) American explorer and soldier. He best known as one-half of the exploring team of Lewis and Clark. Following the Louisiana Purchase, Lewis and Clark were charged by President Thomas Jefferson in 1804 to explore the newly acquired territory west of the Mississippi River. For the next two years the expedition explored and mapped the western territory, studying plant and animal life, and establishing trade with Indian tribes. PRACTICE: Match each statement or concept with the correct term or individual. Write the letter of your answer next to each numbered statement. Terms/Individuals A. John Winthrop B. Gadsden Purchase C. Native Americans D. Manifest Destiny E. 1845 F. Louisiana Purchase G. Walt Whitman H. Emanuel Leutze I. John Louis O’Sullivan J. Lewis and Clark 18. Belief that America has a special role and is destined to expand across the continent. ___________________________ 19. The leader who gave a sermon about the new settlement being a "city upon a hill." ______________________________ 20. Event that tripled the size of the United States in 1803. _________________________________________ 21. This journalist popularized the term "manifest destiny" in 1845. ______________________________________ 22. Pioneers often faced conflicts with these people during their journey to the West. __________________________ 23. The mural study for the Capitol that celebrates the idea of Manifest Destiny. ___________________________________ 24. The final land purchase that established the southern borders of New Mexico and Arizona. ______________________ 25. Explorers who mapped the newly acquired western territory after the Louisiana Purchase. _______________________ 26. This 19th-century poet commented on the relentless territorial expansion. _________________________________ 27. The year Texas was incorporated into the United States. ______________________________________ 19 The War of 1812 During the War of 1812, the United States faced off against Great Britain, the world's most powerful navy. The war was sparked by Britain's efforts to limit U.S. trade, the Royal Navy's practice of forcing American sailors into service, and America's ambition to expand its territory. Despite suffering heavy losses, including the burning of Washington, D.C., American forces managed to repel British attacks in key battles at New York, Baltimore, and New Orleans. This boosted national pride and created a sense of unity. The war officially ended with the Treaty of Ghent in 1815, though many issues remained unresolved. Still, Americans viewed the conflict as a "second war of independence," marking the start of a period of national pride and political harmony. Causes of the War of 1812 At the start of the 19th century, Great Britain was in a long conflict with Napoleon's France. To weaken each other, both countries tried to prevent the U.S. from trading with their enemy. In 1807, Britain passed the Orders in Council, requiring neutral countries to get a license before trading with France or its colonies. The Royal Navy also angered Americans by forcing U.S. sailors into British service, a practice known as impressment. In 1809, the U.S. Congress repealed the unpopular Embargo Act, which had harmed Americans more than Britain or France. It was replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act, which specifically banned trade with Britain and France but was also ineffective. In May 1810, a new law stated that if either country lifted its trade restrictions against the U.S., Congress would block trade with the other country. When Napoleon suggested he might lift restrictions, President James Madison cut off trade with Britain in November. Meanwhile, newly elected Congress members like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun began pushing for war, angered by British violations of U.S. maritime rights and their support of Native American resistance to American expansion. The War of 1812 Breaks Out Did you know? In the fall of 1811, Indiana's territorial governor, William Henry The War of 1812 produced a new generation of Harrison, led U.S. troops to victory in the Battle of Tippecanoe. This great American generals, including Andrew Jackson, Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, and defeat made many Native Americans in the Northwest Territory, helped propel no fewer than four men to the including the Shawnee chief Tecumseh, realize they needed British presidency: Jackson, John Quincy Adams, James support to stop American settlers from taking more of their land. Monroe and William Henry Harrison. Meanwhile, by late 1811, a group in Congress known as the "War Hawks" was pressuring President Madison to go to war. On June 18, 1812, Madison signed a declaration of war against Britain, although Congress was deeply divided on the issue. Most Western and Southern congressmen supported the war, while Federalists, especially in New England, opposed it, accusing war supporters of using maritime rights as an excuse for expanding U.S. territory. To strike at Britain, U.S. forces quickly attacked Canada, then a British colony. American leaders were overly confident about the invasion, despite their troops being unprepared. On the other side, the British defense was well- coordinated by Sir Isaac Brock, the leader in Upper Canada (now Ontario). On August 16, 1812, the U.S. suffered a humiliating defeat when Brock and Tecumseh's forces chased U.S. General William Hull's troops across the Canadian border, leading Hull to surrender Detroit without firing a shot. 20 War of 1812: Mixed Results for American Forces Things started to improve for the United States in the West when Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry achieved a major victory at the Battle of Lake Erie in September 1813, securing the Northwest Territory for the U.S. Following this, General Harrison was able to recapture Detroit by winning the Battle of Thames, where the Shawnee chief Tecumseh was killed. Meanwhile, the U.S. Navy had early success against the British Royal Navy. However, after Napoleon's defeat in April 1814, Britain could focus fully on the war in North America. With the arrival of more troops, the British launched attacks, raiding the Chesapeake Bay and capturing Washington, D.C., on August 24, 1814, where they burned down key government buildings, including the Capitol and the White House. Inspiration for 'The Star Spangled Banner' On September 11, 1814, the American Navy won a decisive victory over the British fleet at the Battle of Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain in New York. Just two days later, on September 13, Fort McHenry in Baltimore endured 25 hours of heavy bombardment by the British Navy but held strong. The next morning, the soldiers at the fort raised a huge American flag, which inspired Francis Scott Key to write a poem that would eventually become "The Star-Spangled Banner," the U.S. national anthem. After this defeat, British forces left the Chesapeake Bay and shifted their focus to New Orleans. End of the War of 1812 and Its Impact By the time peace talks started in Ghent (now in Belgium), Britain sought an armistice after their failed attack on Baltimore. During the negotiations, the U.S. dropped its demands to end the practice of impressment, and Britain agreed to keep Canada’s borders as they were and to stop trying to create an Indian state in the Northwest. On December 24, 1814, the Treaty of Ghent was signed, and it was ratified the following February. However, on January 8, 1815, not knowing that peace had been achieved, British forces launched a major attack at the Battle of New Orleans. They were defeated by General Andrew Jackson’s army, which gave Americans a morale boost and a sense of victory, even though the war's original goals were not met. Although the War of 1812 is often seen as a minor conflict in the United States and Britain, it had a major impact on Canadians and Native Americans, marking a key moment in their struggles for self-governance. In the U.S., the Treaty of Ghent ended years of intense political division and began the "Era of Good Feelings." The war also led to the decline of the Federalist Party, which was criticized for opposing the war, and deepened anti-British sentiment. Most importantly, the war's outcome boosted American confidence and fueled the country's expansion across the continent throughout the 19th century. Key Terms: The Battle of Tippecanoe: Took place in 1811 when U.S. forces, led by Governor William Henry Harrison, fought against Native American warriors associated with Shawnee leader Tecumseh. The American victory weakened Native resistance in the Northwest Territory and increased tensions between the United States and Britain, contributing to the lead-up to the War of 1812. Tecumseh: A Shawnee leader who sought to unite Native American tribes to resist U.S. expansion into their lands in the early 1800s. His efforts to form a confederation of tribes were a significant factor in the conflicts leading up to the War of 1812. The Battle of Plattsburgh: Fought on September 11, 1814, was a key naval and land battle during the War of 1812, where American forces decisively defeated the British fleet on Lake Champlain. This victory prevented the British from advancing further into the United States and helped secure American control over the Northwest Territory. The Treaty of Ghent: Signed on December 24, 1814, ended the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain, restoring pre-war boundaries without addressing many of the issues that caused the conflict. The treaty was ratified by the U.S. in February 1815, officially bringing peace and ending hostilities. The Battle of New Orleans: Took place on January 8, 1815, where General Andrew Jackson's forces defeated the British in a decisive victory, despite the fact that the Treaty of Ghent had already been signed to end the War of 1812. This battle boosted American morale and cemented Jackson’s reputation as a national hero. 21 Industrial Revolution and technological advancements The Industrial Revolution is considered one of the most significant revolutions in human history due to its profound impact on everyday life. The term "industrial revolution" describes a period that began in 18th-century Great Britain when technological advancements rapidly increased, leading to new tools and machines, as well as improvements in labor, production, and resource use. The concept of a technological revolution, marked by continuous and accelerating change, started long before the 18th century and continues today. What made the Industrial Revolution unique was how it combined technology with industry, transforming almost every sector of human activity and creating new industries through key inventions and innovations. Agriculture Farming methods in Western Europe had been slowly improving over the centuries, but several key factors in 18th-century Britain led to a significant boost in agricultural productivity. Innovations like Jethro Tull's seed drill, improvements in crop rotation, soil health, and new crop varieties, along with better animal husbandry, resulted in higher yields and better nutrition for a growing population. This progress also sparked a shift towards large-scale commercial farming, which continued into the 19th century. However, poorer peasants struggled with traditional farming, especially as the enclosure movement turned common land into private property. Many rural workers were forced to move to cities to find Jethro Tull's seed drill work in the growing industrial sector. Energy By the 16th century, deforestation in England caused a shortage of wood for building and fuel, leading the country to transition to coal as its main energy source by the late 17th century. This shift played a crucial role in Britain's industrialization, with the coal-fired steam engine becoming a key technology of the Industrial Revolution. Steam power was first used to pump water out of coal mines, similar to how windmills were used in the Netherlands to drain low-lying areas. Although wind was a renewable energy source, it was inconsistent, making water power more popular for tasks like grinding grain in preindustrial Europe. However, by the late 18th century, Scottish engineer James Watt and his partner Matthew Watts Steam Engine Boulton developed highly efficient and versatile steam engines. These engines quickly became the main power source for British and later European industry, allowing factories to be located away from water sources and leading to the growth of large industrial cities. Metallurgy* Due to a wood shortage in Britain, the traditional craft of smelting had to shift from using wood charcoal to coke, a byproduct of coal. This change ultimately boosted iron production. During the 18th century, experimentation led to further improvements in metallurgical techniques. For instance, a type of furnace was developed that kept coal separate from the metal, preventing contamination. Additionally, the "puddling" process, which involved stirring molten iron, allowed for the production of larger quantities of wrought iron. Wrought iron, being more malleable than cast iron, became ideal for making machinery and other heavy industrial tools. *Field of science and technology concerned with metals and their production and purification. 22 Textiles The production of fabrics, especially cotton, played a crucial role in Britain's economic growth between 1750 and 1850, a period often associated with the Industrial Revolution. During this time, cotton production transformed from a small-scale cottage industry, where rural families spun and wove in Spinning Jenny their homes, to a large-scale, mechanized factory industry. The surge in productivity began with the invention of devices like the spinning jenny, spinning mule, and power loom. Initially powered by humans, then water, and finally steam, these machines revolutionized the Spinning Mule production process. Another significant invention was the cotton gin, created in the United States in 1793, which led to a dramatic increase in cotton cultivation Power Loom and exports from U.S. slave states, a key supplier to Britain. Chemicals This industry developed in part to meet the need for better bleaching methods for cotton and other textiles. Additionally, chemical research was driven by the search for artificial dyes, explosives, solvents, fertilizers, and medicines, including pharmaceuticals. By the second half of the 19th century, Germany had become the global leader in industrial chemistry. Transportation As agricultural and manufactured goods increased, there was a growing need for more efficient ways to transport these products to market. In Europe, the first steps toward this goal included building better roads. Canals were also constructed in Europe and North America to connect existing waterways. Steam engines were soon applied to transportation, leading to the development of steamboats in the early 19th century. High-pressure steam engines also powered trains, which began operating in Britain after 1825. Railways quickly spread across Europe and North America, and later to Asia in the second half of the 19th century, making railroads one of the world's leading industries and expanding industrial society. Steam Boat 23 Other Technological Advancements The cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney in 1794, transformed the difficult process of separating cotton fibers from seeds, significantly boosting productivity. This invention spurred economic growth, especially in the Deep South, where cotton farming thrived. However, it also deepened the region's dependence on enslaved labor, contributing to the persistence of slavery. The cotton gin's impact led to the rapid expansion of cotton cultivation, increasing demand and driving the growth of the textile industry. As cotton became a dominant crop, the Southern economy flourished, but the reliance on cotton and slavery played a key role in the tensions leading up to the Civil War. While inventions like the light bulb are famous, anesthesia might be the most appreciated product of the Industrial Revolution, especially by anyone facing surgery. Before anesthesia, procedures like tooth extraction or limb removal were excruciating, with patients needing to be restrained. Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) and ether were discovered in the early 1800s, initially seen as intoxicants with no practical use. However, after a dentist named Horace Wells noticed the pain-numbing effects of nitrous oxide during a demonstration, he successfully used it for a dental procedure, paving the way for the development of anesthesia in surgery. Before smartphones and laptops, people used the electric telegraph, an invention from the Industrial Revolution, to communicate, though more slowly. Developed in the 1830s and 1840s by Samuel Morse and others, the telegraph transmitted electrical signals over wires, sending messages over long distances using Morse code, a system of dots and dashes representing letters. The first telegraph message, "What hath God wrought?" was sent by Morse in 1844, marking a breakthrough in communication. This invention allowed nearly instant communication, helped spread news quickly, and eventually connected America to Europe. Child Labor New developments like the steam engine played a crucial role in transforming economies and societies during the Industrial Revolution, turning nations into global superpowers. While it created many job opportunities, the Industrial Revolution also led to the widespread use of child labor. Children were employed in factories and mines because their small size allowed them to perform tasks adults couldn't manage. The advancements in technology during this era also spurred political and social reform movements, particularly those focused on child labor laws. For many employers of that time, children were valuable workers because they could be hired for lower wages and were suitable for tasks that required smaller hands or were considered simpler. Many of these children came from impoverished families and were forced to work to help support their households, often enduring harsh conditions. Industrialists exploited these children, making them work on dangerous machinery in factories or breaking coal in mines. By the mid-19th century, it was reported that a significant portion of the workforce in manufacturing industries consisted of women and children, rather than men. 24 As society began to recognize the detrimental effects of child labor, calls for change grew louder. Several key laws were enacted to protect children in the textile industry: the Cotton Factories Regulation Act of 1819, which set a minimum working age of 9 and a maximum of 12 hours of work per day; the Regulation of Child Labor Law of 1833, which introduced paid inspectors to enforce these laws; and the Ten Hours Bill of 1847, which limited working hours for children and women to 10 hours a day. These laws aimed to prevent the harm caused by hazardous working conditions, which led to issues like respiratory diseases in children who worked in coal mines and even death due to injuries and poor working environments. Over time, as society and technology advanced, child labor laws continued to evolve, leading to stricter regulations and better protections for young workers. Social Reform Movements In the 19th century, there were three major social reform movements: abolition, temperance, and women’s rights. These movements were closely linked and shared many leaders. Most of these leaders were evangelical Protestants who believed in making broad social changes. Temperance Movement Although they might have concentrated on one area of reform, they were all interconnected and exchanged ideas and strategies. For example, the temperance movement, which aimed to reduce alcohol consumption, was linked to abolition because both were seen as necessary to combat the problems associated with the global slave trade. Before the Civil War, abolition became the main focus, and leaders from temperance and women’s rights often stepped back to prioritize ending slavery. After the war, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments ended slavery, granted citizenship to Black men, and protected voting rights regardless of race. Many abolitionists felt their work was done and turned to other reforms. Some women’s rights activists, who had been involved in abolition, thought it was unfair that voting rights were extended to Black men but not to women. They then focused on securing voting rights and addressing other legal and social issues affecting women. The American temperance movement began in 1784 with Dr. Benjamin Rush's pamphlet on the effects of alcohol. In 1813, the Society for the Suppression of Intemperance, the first temperance organization, was founded in Massachusetts. Initially, the movement focused on moderate drinking, particularly of distilled spirits, rather than complete abstinence or concerns about beer and wine. During the 1840s, as cities grew and immigration increased, Americans worried about the breakdown of community order. The temperance movement gained momentum as a way to restore self-discipline and social stability. From the 1820s to the Civil War, the movement thrived, using methods like moral persuasion to encourage personal change through religion. Over time, it began to push for laws to control alcohol sales. Predominantly middle-class, Protestant, and based in northern towns and cities, the movement faded during the Civil War but reemerged in the 1870s with renewed energy, particularly from women's groups. In the winter of 1873-74, a massive movement of women took place across the Midwest, starting in Ohio. Thousands of women protested against the sale of alcohol in local saloons in what was called the Crusade. They were reacting to the growing alcohol consumption and powerful national breweries that were expanding their influence. The women held prayer meetings and protests, leading many saloon owners to close their businesses. In November 1874, the National Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was founded to build on the Crusade's success. The WCTU continued the Crusade’s approach, focusing on moral persuasion and using women's moral authority to drive local change. Women organized local unions, held prayer meetings, signed pledges, and visited homes and saloons to promote abstinence. In 1879, Frances E. Willard became the WCTU’s president. She expanded the WCTU’s efforts to include reforms in labor laws, child welfare, and prison reform, as well as advocating for temperance education and women's suffrage. Her "Do Everything" policy made the WCTU the largest women's organization of the 19th century. 25 The Women’s Suffrage Movement Although the push for women's rights started before 1848, the Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, New York, that year is often seen as the start of the organized women’s rights movement in the U.S. At this convention, leaders wrote the Declaration of Sentiments, which called for married women’s property rights, better access to education and jobs, and the right to vote. In the 1860s, the movement focused more on securing the right to vote. Women formed local and national groups and held conventions to advance their cause. Leaders like Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Lucy Stone traveled across the country, giving speeches and spreading their message through newspapers and literature. Their main argument was that women deserved the vote because they were equal to men. This idea was very radical at the time, and most American women did not support it. As a result, the suffrage movement grew slowly, with membership in organizations reaching about 20,000 people. In 2009 and 2010, the U.S. marked the 140th anniversary of women gaining the right to vote, which began in Wyoming. On These states and territories gave women December 10, 1869, Wyoming passed the first law granting full or partial suffrage before the women the right to vote, and they cast their votes for the first Nineteenth Amendment was passed in time in 1870. The term “suffrage” comes from the Latin word for 1920: voting rights. Wyoming (1869) Women had been advocating for the right to vote since the Utah (1896) 1820s. Before the Civil War, a few states allowed women limited Colorado (1893) voting rights, like New Jersey, which permitted it until 1844. Idaho (1896) Washington (1910) In 1869, while the 15th Amendment gave voting rights to all California (1911) men, it didn’t mention women. States could still pass their own Oregon (1912) suffrage laws. That year, the completion of the transcontinental Arizona (1912) railroad brought more people to the West, including Wyoming. Kansas (1912) In response, Wyoming’s government, eager to attract settlers, Alaska (1913) passed the suffrage law with little debate. Illinois (1913) North Dakota (1917) The new law allowed women to vote, serve on juries, and hold Indiana (1919) office. The first women voted in September 1870, and their Nebraska (1917) participation in elections was noted for its impact on local Michigan (1918) politics. Despite some pushback, Wyoming’s law remained in Arkansas (1917) place, and in 1890, Wyoming became the first state with full New York (1917) voting rights for women. It earned the nickname “The Equality South Dakota (1918) State” for its pioneering efforts. Oklahoma (1918) Susan B. Anthony Jane Addams Carrie Chapman Catt Septima Poinsette Clark Clark developed the literacy and A prominent figure in the Catt served as president citizenship workshops that played an An American social women's suffrage movement in important role in the drive for voting of the National American reformer and women's the United States, and her work rights and civil rights for African Woman Suffrage rights activist who helped lead to the ratification Americans in the Civil Rights Association from 1900 to played a pivotal role of the 19th Amendment in 1920. Movement. 1904 and 1915 to 1920. in the women's suffrage movement. 26 Abolition The abolitionist movement refers to the organized fight against slavery in the 30 years before the Civil War. However, the push to end slavery in America started much earlier, with religious groups calling for its abolition before the American Revolution. Slavery was deeply ingrained in American society, especially in the South, where many believed it was essential for the economy and would tear the nation apart if abolished. Despite some early Congressional actions like banning the international slave trade, by the 1830s, the U.S. still had around two million slaves. In response, abolitionists began to organize, form antislavery societies, hold conferences, and petition Congress. In 1833, William Lloyd Garrison, through his newspaper *The Liberator*, helped make the movement more aggressive. He founded the American Anti-Slavery Society and promoted nonviolent protests, speeches, literature, and boycotts of slave-produced goods. Garrison’s goal was not only to end slavery but also to fight racial prejudice. White and Black abolitionists had different perspectives; white activists often focused on ending slavery, while Black activists fought for full racial equality. Recent historians like Manisha Sinha have emphasized the crucial role of Black activists and slave revolts in the Caribbean in shaping the abolition movement and later civil rights movements. Civil War and Reconstruction Causes and events that lead to the Civil War The Civil War was the culmination of a series of confrontations concerning the institution of slavery. The following is a timeline of the events that led to the Civil War. 1619-1865 | The Peculiar Institution Slavery was introduced to North America by Spanish and English colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries, with around 645,000 Africans brought to the U.S. while slav

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