1450-1800 Study Guide PDF

1450-1800 Study Guide Age of Exploration (yap background info) ○ The rise of the West from the 15th and 18th centuries involved distant explorations and conquests resulting in a heightening and redefining of relationships among world societies. - Wanted to eliminate going through other...

1450-1800 Study Guide Age of Exploration (yap background info) ○ The rise of the West from the 15th and 18th centuries involved distant explorations and conquests resulting in a heightening and redefining of relationships among world societies. - Wanted to eliminate going through other brokers -- wanted to be the middleman and be connected to make money ○ The Americas and other world areas joined the world network, while older regions had increased contacts. (Trade became so significant that new relationships emerged among societies) - Everyone was trading during this period!! ○ Technological improvements during the 15th century changed the equation. ○ Deep-draft, round-hulled ships were able to sail in the Atlantic’s waters. (caravels) - Allowed them to withstand the harsh conditions of the new, better routes and had more room for cargo and people ○ Improved metalwork techniques allowed the vessels to carry armaments far superior to the weapons aboard ships of other societies. - Allowed the ship to carry heavier weight ○ The compass and better mapmaking improved navigational skills. (Came from China) ○ Sternpost rudder - can steer and control bigger ships ○ Lateen sails - allowed the ship to go in one direction regardless of the direction of the wind ○ Astrolabe - help navigate by the sun and the stars (especially effective during the night) Major countries involved (Spain, Portugal, etc) Portugal ○ The initiative for Atlantic exploration came from Portugal. - Very close to the shores of Africa so they were strategically closeby - They also had a royal family that supported overseas exploration and continued to fund it → King John I and Prince Henry the Navigator ○ Prince Henry the Navigator directed explorations motivated by Christian missionary zeal, the excitement of discovery, and a thirst for wealth. - Armchair navigator → he didn’t go out to navigate but he got a lot of the credit ○ Motivated by GOD, GLORY, AND GOLD - God - wanted to create a bigger Christian Empire - Glory - the excitement of creating their own legacy and gaining power - Gold - finding resources like gold, silver, sugar, spices ○ From 1434, Portuguese vessels, searching for a route to India, traveled ever farther southward along the African coast. In 1488, they passed the Cape of Good Hope (Bartholemew Diaz was one of the first to round the Cape of Good Hope to find a route to India) ○ Vasco da Gama reached India in 1497 - establish trade relationships between Portuguese and India (sets them up for more voyages to keep going east) ○ Many voyages soon followed. (One blown off course, reached Brazil) ○ By 1514, the Portuguese had reached Indonesia and China. ○ In 1542, they arrived in Japan and began Catholic missionary activity. ○ Fortresses were established in African and Asian ports - Keep their major ports for defense Spain ○ The Spanish quickly followed the Portuguese example - King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella funded the exploration ○ Columbus reached the Americas in 1492, mistakenly calling their inhabitants Indians. - Creates a whole wave of explorers to the new world - At this point, both Portugal and Spain are in the Americas → competitive - In 1494 → Treaty of Tordesillas - they drew up a line where the Spanish got everything west and Portugal got everything east - Since they didn’t know how big the Americas were, Portugal only got Brazil while the Spanish got everything else ○ Spain gained papal approval for its claims over most of Latin America; a later decision gave Brazil to Portugal. ○ Sixteenth-century expeditions brought the Spanish as far north as the southwestern United States. ○ Ferdinand Magellan began a Spanish voyage in 1519 that circumnavigated the globe. As a result, Spain claimed the Philippines. - He died in the Philippines but still got the credit (his crew and voyage) Goals, accomplishments, consequences for world history, etc The Atlantic World ○ The development of new Atlantic sea lanes began an epochal transformation in world history: overseas colonies → creating colonies became a new motive to explore - Europeans conquered native peoples and created colonies to enrich themselves and their monarchs. - “Discovery” of the Americas was accidental: Columbus was looking for a passage to Asia → new push in looking for new places and establishing colonies - European diseases, weaponry, and horses decimated Amerindians. - Amerindians -- a term for Native Americans - Material advantages and local allies enabled Europeans to colonize to an extent that was impossible in Asia or Africa. - Use their advantages against the Amerindians who did not have immunity to diseases on top of killing them with advanced weapons →made it easier for them to colonize them in America - Lack of labor force from Amerindians led to large-scale introduction of African slave laborers - Europeans were giving weapons/guns in exchange for slaves Consequences for World History 1. The creation of a new international pool for exchanges of food, diseases, and manufactured products → exchange of things are circling 2. The forming of a more inclusive world economy → does not benefit everyone, but those who are benefiting, are striving (everyone is in it, but not impacted the same) 3. The opening of some parts of the world to Western colonization Major explorers + explorations + outcomes First Encounters ○ October 12, 1492, on behalf of Spain, Columbus reached Caribbean lands and ushered in a new era of world history. ○ Columbus’s goals were to make money and Christianize the world, which drove the European colonization of the Americas. ○ Columbus mislabeled Tainos as “Indians,” as he believed he had reached India (had to outline what they found to report back to the Spanish) - Described the Tainos as a child-like people with no religion, ready for conversion - Tainos possessed gold - Tainos told them of “savage” Caribs, a neighboring tribe - Contrasting images of innocents and savages structured European (mis)understanding of Amerindian peoples for centuries Amerindians’ First Impressions ○ Historians know less about Amerindian perceptions of Europeans. - European metal goods and military prowess impressed them. - European hair, beards, breath, and bad manners often repulsed them. - Europeans were unable to live off the land. (Columbus and his crew were not farmers so this did not impress them) First Conquests ○ Columbus claimed there was gold on Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). ○ Spain therefore invested in further expeditions with Columbus. ○ The Spanish experimented with institutions of colonial rule, ultimately creating a model for the rest of the New World colonies. - They wanted to make money and create a structure of a government that oversees exploration and colonization in the New World ○ Encomiendas and encomenderos: favored settlers granted the “right” to coerce Indian labor (basically feudalism in the Americas) → result from colonization ○ Amerindian resistance (the Spanish saw the natives as tools -- natives didn't prevail) - Spaniards responded by enslaving Indians to work in gold mines. - Encomenderos paid special taxes on extracted precious metals. ○ As resources depleted, Spaniards sought new territories. (have a foothold) - Encountered some larger, more complex and more militarized societies on the mainland - Such societies were unprepared for European assaults. The Hierarchy 1. Peninsulares - Spanish descent from Spain that are selected to govern the colonized a. Viceroy - the appointed governors of each of the colonies of New Spain b. Each system provides the Peninsulares with a piece of land in which they are expected to protect this territory (have soldiers to protect) i. Each of these royal estates where they produce goods and protect is called the hacienda c. In case they overstepped their role, they had a system called Audiencias in which courts would keep the viceroys in check (a very long process) d. They were also expected to convert all people to Christianity (one of their goals) → majority is Catholic (against their will) i. Several missionary groups helped convert people to Christianity; they were called the Jesuits and the Franciscans ○ They were appalled at the rough conditions the Natives and African slaves faced, yet they couldn’t do anything about it ii. Degree of syncretism → Christianity mixed with Native religions 2. Creoles (criollos) - born to Spanish parents but in the New World a. Because they were not born in Spain, they were somewhat looked down upon because they were not pure Spanish (could not become viceroy like the Peninsulares) -- still very wealthy, just not as powerful 3. MestIzos - European and Native American descent (castas -- mixed race) 4. Mulattoes - European and African descent (also castas) a. Below the Mestizos because the Spanish viewed Africans as less than 5. Native Americans - labor force 6. African slaves - labor force Cortés and Conquest ○ Debate over extent to which Aztecs believed Cortés and his men were the god Quetzalcoatl ○ Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II sent emissaries with gifts, but the Aztecs didn’t prepare for military engagement. ○ Hernán Cortés arrived with eleven ships, 500 men, sixteen horses, and arms: became model conquistador - Doña Marina, a local Amerindian noble family, became Cortés’s interpreter. - Cortés and soldiers were impressed with Tenochtitlán. (still looked down on them but continued to play nice) ○ Spaniards able to conquer Aztecs because: - Spanish formed alliances with Aztec enemies, the Tlaxcalans (couldn’t jump on rebelling against the Aztecs until everyone was cohesively on the same page) - Aztec warfare involved capturing enemies, whereas the Spanish fought to kill. - Aztecs weren’t familiar with Spanish technology, such as gunpowder, steel swords, horses, or war dogs. (outclassed; huge advantage for the Spanish) - Aztecs allowed Cortés to enter their city of Tenochtitlán. (all Cortes really needed) - Disease also began to spread throughout the city → very helpful ○ In 1519, Cortés captured Tenochtitlán and Moctezuma, who then ruled as a Spanish puppet. (political tool) Aztec Rebellion and Defeated ○ Following the Spanish massacre of unarmed Aztecs, the Aztecs rose in rebellion. - Killed Moctezuma - Initially forced Spanish withdraw ○ Spanish and Tlaxcalan eventually defeated the Aztecs. - Starvation, disease (smallpox), lack of artillery, and Cortés’s ability to force Amerindian alliances led to Aztec defeat. - More Aztecs died from disease than fighting. - Cortés became governor of the colony “New Spain.” ○ The Spanish learned how to be effective at conquest. - Swift - Removed symbols of legitimate authority - Disease was the real advantage. (biggest advantage they have as the natives were not immune nor exposed to diseases like smallpox) The Incas ○ Quechua-speaking people in the Andes near present-day Cuzco, Peru - South America’s greatest empire - Domain from present day Chile to southern Colombia - Political power relied on tribute and commercial exchange to finance communication and military network - Wealthy agrarian base - Up to 6 million people at its peak ○ In 1532, Francisco Pizarro found a divided empire. - Laid a trap and defeated Incan ruler Atahualpa and the Incas in 1533 ○ The European defeat of the New World’s two great empires, the Aztecs and Incas, introduced a new scale of imperial expansion and provided Europe with great wealth and a market for their products. (biggest stepping stone -- obstacles removed) Northern European Expeditions ○ In the 16th century, the exploratory initiative moved from the Portuguese and Spanish to strong northern European states—Britain, Holland, and France. ○ They had improved oceanic vessel design (durable and faster), while Portugal and Spain were busy digesting their colonial gains. They also secured more wealth + took over Spanish trade routes. The British naval victory over Spain (The Spanish Armada) in 1588 left general ocean dominance to northern nations. ○ The French first crossed the Atlantic in 1534 and soon established settlements in Canada. ○ The British reached North America in 1497, beginning colonization of its east coast during the seventeenth century. Some Important Explorers ○ Amerigo Vespucci (1500) - Italian explorer → America was named after him; he also found out how big South America actually was ○ Ponce de Leon (1513) - sails for Spain and explorers the religion of Florida (southeastern US), looking for the fountain of eternal youth ○ Francis Drake (1578) - first Englishman to go around the world ○ Henry Hudson (1609) - sailed for the Dutch and discovered the Hudson River More Northern European Expeditions ○ The Dutch also had holdings in the Americas. (more focused on the other side of the world, stealing territories from the Portuguese) ○ They won control of Indonesia from the Portuguese by the early 17th century, and in the middle of the century established a relay settlement on the southern tip of Africa. - The Dutch made money by trafficking in spices → important in Asia ○ French, Dutch, and British traders received government-awarded monopolies of trade in the newly reached regions, but the chartered companies acted without much official supervision. - British East India Company - Dutch East India Company - Muscovy Company of Russia ○ They gained great profits and acted like independent political entities. Exchanges and Expansions in North America ○ Expanding Mainland Colonies - Dutch relied on commerce, British and French exploited natural resources in colonies - British approach to access to resources was to disposes Amerindians of their lands - British established farms - Grew variety of crops, including tobacco, rice and indigo, along Atlantic seaboard - Eventually dispossessed Amerindians of their lands from the Atlantic Ocean and the Appalachian mountains - Dutch and French colonies depended on natives - French relied on fur trade - The English took over Holland's New Netherland colony, renaming it New York in 1664 - French claims encompassed a vast territory including eastern Canada, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi Valley - Beaver crucial to trade between Europeans and Amerindians - French depended on Indian knowledge in regard to the fur trade - Reliance forced French to adapt to Native American ways - French-Indian children, metis, played an important role in New France as interpreters, traders and guides - The French colonization of the Americas rested more on cooperation than on conquest, because of their reliance on Indians as trading partners, military allies, and mates ○ Introduction of guns by French (and English) trade initiated an arms race among Native Americans - Native Americans traded skins for guns - Scarcity of beaver led to competition between groups ○ Native Americans also wanted alcohol (rum!! → no bacteria; more people got sick from water) ○ From the mid 17th century, British and French focused on sugar plantations (can make rum) The Plantation Complex in the Caribbean ○ Relied on slave labor to produce sugar for export ○ Sugar was a “killing crop” - It flourished in hot and humid climates that fostered diseases - Slaves face inadequate food, atrocious living conditions, and filthy sanitation - Treated slaves as nonhumans - The average life expectancy was three years - With grueling work schedules of seven days a week, 16 hour days, some slaves dropped dead from exhaustion ○ Slaves resisted as they could - Some armed resistance but more common was flight - Others resisted with foot dragging, pilfering, and sabotage (would rather resist and die while punishing the Europeans) ○ No single colonial power dominated the Caribbean - English Jamaica, Dutch Antilles, and French Saint Domingue (present-day Haiti) - French Saint Domingue produced nearly half the world’s supply of sugar and coffee by 1789 - The Atlantic system benefited elite Europeans who amassed new fortunes with colonial natural resources and African slave labor Columbian Exchange Columbian Exchange (attributed to Columbus’s legacy) ○ The extension of international interaction facilitated the spread of disease ○ Native Americans and Polynesians, lacking natural immunity to smallpox and measles, died in huge numbers ○ In the Americas, Europeans forged new populations from their own peoples and through the importation of African slaves (mixed raced groups and new populations) ○ New World crops spread rapidly. American corn and the potato became important in Europe; corn and the sweet potato similarly changed life in China and Africa ○ Major population increases resulted. The use of tobacco, sugar, and coffee slowly became widespread in Europe. European and Asian animals passed to the New World Impact on trade, economy, politics, etc West’s Commercial Outreach - Westerners, because of their superior military might, dominated international trade, but they did not displace all rivals (Chinese, Arabs, etc) - Little inland territory was conquered in Africa or Asia; the Europeans sought secure harbors and built fortifications to protect their commerce and serve as contact places for inland traders - When effective indigenous states opposed such bases, Europeans gained protected trading enclaves within their cities. - Joint stock companies – companies/organizations created to pool resources for merchants (Individual investors buy shares or stock in the companies and if the company made money, people made money) East India Companies - British East India Company – will be important for colonization in the future with territory in India, etc - Dutch East India Company – controlled routes to the “spice islands” (Indonesia) - Muscovy Company of England – monopolized trade routes to Russia Imbalance of World Trade - By the 17th century a new world economy, dominated by Europeans, had formed. - Spain and Portugal briefly held leadership, but their economies and banking systems could not meet the new demands. - England, France, and Holland - established more durable economic dominance (They expanded manufacturing operations to meet new market conditions) - The doctrines of mercantilism protected home markets and supported exports and tariff policies discouraged competition from colonies and foreign rivals. - Beyond Europe, areas became dependent participants in the world economy as producers and suppliers of low-cost raw materials; in return they received European manufactured items. Africa and the Middle Passage - Africa entered the world network mainly as a slave supplier. - The Europeans controlled commercial and shipping services - African slave traders and rulers taxing the trade could become rich A system of International Inequality - Dependence in the world economy helped form a coercive labor system. - The necessity for cheap products produced in the Americas resulted in exploitation of indigenous populations or use of slaves. - Around the world (such as in the Dutch East Indies and British India) peasants were forced into labor systems World Economy - Huge world areas remained outside the world economy. - There were some nations not affected politically or economically by its structure, and until the 18th century did not greatly suffer from the missed opportunities for profit or technological advance - East Asian civilizations did not need European products (concentrated on consumption or regional commerce) - China was uninterested in international trading involvement and remained mainly outside the world economy until the end of the 18th century; It was powerful enough to keep Europeans in check - European desire for Chinese manufactured items made China the leading recipient of American silver. - In Japan, early openness to Europeans, in missionary activity and interest in military technology, quickly ended. - Most contacts were prohibited from the 17th to the 19th century. - Minimal trade w/ Europeans -Most concentrated on their own internal development. - Russia and African regions not participating in the slave trade were outside the international economic orbit. Expansionism - European dominance spread to new areas during the 17th and 18th centuries. - British and French merchants strengthened their positions as the Mughal Empire (India) began falling apart. - Tariffs blocked other cotton industries from competing with British production of cotton. - India’s complex economy survived, but with a weakened international status. - Eastern Europe joined world economic activity by exporting grain, mainly produced by serfs working on large estates, from Prussia, Poland, and Russia, to the West. Colonial Expansion - Western colonial dominance over many peoples accompanied the new world economic network. - Two types of American colonies emerged, in Latin America and the Caribbean, and in North America. - Smaller colonies were present in Africa and Asia - The settlers ruthlessly sought gold - As agricultural settlements were established, Spanish and Portuguese officials created more formal administration. - Missionary activity added another layer of administration - The Dutch and English built slave-based economies. Western Civilization Outside the West - Western habits had been transplanted into a new setting - When British colonists revolted against their rulers, they did so under Western-inspired political and economic ideology. - Once successful, they were the first to implement some of the principal concepts of that ideology Effects on Asia and Africa - In Africa, most Europeans were confined, because of climate, disease, geographical barriers, and African strength, to coastal trading forts - In South Africa, the Dutch founded Cape Town in 1652 as a settlement for supplying ships on the way to southeastern Asia - The settlers expanded into nearby regions where they met and fought indigenous hunters and herding peoples. - Spain moved into the Philippines and began Christianizing activities - The Dutch East India Company administered parts of Indonesia - European cultural effect was slight and few settlers, apart from the Dutch in South Africa, took up residence. - Only in the Philippines were many indigenous peoples drawn to Christianity - Colonial development affected western Europe economically and diplomatically Effects on Western Europe - Colonial rivalries added to the persisting hostilities between nations. The Seven Years’ War, fought in Europe, Asia, and America, was the first worldwide war. - The colonies brought new wealth to Europe - New products changed lifestyles Significance of this Period - The development of a world economy and European colonialism had major effects. - African populations were disrupted by the slave trade. - Indian manufacturing levels declined. - New labor systems formed in many regions. - The interaction between civilizations was significant even if it was in conflict - Indigenous responses, as with Christianity, combined their ideas with the arriving influences. - Despite the many hardships imposed on many societies, some benefits resulted: - New food crops and increased trade allowed population growth. - Challenges had been created for all civilizations, and whatever the individual reaction, innovation was required. Transformation of the West Protestant and Catholic Reformation (goals, accomplishments, etc) - 1517: Martin Luther posted “95 Theses” on church door in Wittenberg, Germany - Protested Catholic Church’s use of indulgences, Latin Bible, celibacy for priests, idea of Pope - Luther is excommunicated - Luther believed salvation was obtained only through faith in Christ, NOT on following Church practices - Viewed Christian participation in commerce favorably - Luther’s ideas spread rapidly via prints Martin Luther - Indulgences - something you buy to reduce your time in purgatory and allow you to go to heaven. Money purposes/to amass wealth but also to control the people. People were upset about it, like Martin Luther. - The practice of simony - the selling of church offices and granting pardons and freedoms to people to get them out of trouble - He writes a letter to the Archbishop of Mainz to protest his grievances about the church. The archbishop gets pissed; this works its way up to the pope (Pope Leo X). He also gets pissed. Eventually, Martin Luther was banned from all catholic practices at large (Martin Luther kinda didn’t care cuz he wanted to promote his messages) - The Lutherans separated from the catholic church. 1545, more protestant churches begin to pop up before he died Results of Protestant Reformation 1. Spread of belief that salvation can be achieved through faith alone 2. Creation of new Protestant churches throughout Northern Europe and America 3. Supported culture of questioning of political/religious leadership (most important) 4. Papal power decreases → monarchs’ power increases 5. Desire to read the Bible → increase in literacy (ties into #7) 6. Increase in status of women → promotion of love between husband and wife 7. Growing literacy and the spread of the printing press → spread of new religious ideas Protestant Developments - Second Protestant Reformation: Henry VIII - Pope refused to annul first marriage to Catherine of Aragon as she had not produced a male heir - Wants to leave his wife for Anne Boleyn so he can get a male heir → Pope denies it - He renounced Rome and Catholicism → made himself head of Religious Affairs and created the Church of England - He marries Anne Boelyn, and she gets pregnant but has a miscarriage, so he wants to leave her → rumor that she slept with her brother → both are beheaded - Then he marries Jane Seymor and they have a son called Edward (who ends up dying at a young age) - He had two daughters (Mary and Elizabeth I) who ended up ruling England; Ending the Tudor reign - Jean Calvin: Calvinism (pastor, theologian) - Calvinism - denotation of Christianity - Predestination (God predetermined the people who will be saved) - Elect - part of the preselected group - Calvinists grow the population of French Protestants (French Protestants called Huguenots) The Catholic Reformation - Catholicism is threatened by sudden and extreme interest in Protestantism - Roman Catholic Church launches Counter Reformation or Catholic Reformation - Papal Inquisition - launched by the pope; combats the Catholic Reformation; series of intensive questions and torture to see where the problems are coming from in the church and who is the “bad seed” - Reforms (start in Spain): No more Indulgence, Training Priests to lead a more Catholic life (lead by example, not just talk), Have a mandatory weekly mass - No longer bowing to Protestant demands → making their own reforms - They want to make this solidified - Council of Trent, church assembly: abandon sale of indulgences - Ecumenical council (related to the church) → between 1545-1563 - Meeting of church officials that would clarify the Church’s position and write everything down - Results in a huge come-back for the Catholic Church → causes tensions with Protestants - Will successfully contain the spread of Protestants in the South - Goal: incite Catholic fervor into Europeans, asset personal relationship with Christ through Church (make people excited again) - New missionary efforts (to complete their goal) - Jesuits: Americas and Asia - Prominent missionary groups of this period - They were founded by Ignatius Loyola (1534) - Very influential in restoring the faith of the people through the teachings of Jesus (would lead them to salvation): 1. Practicing self-control and moderation 2. Prayer 3. Doing good works (giving to charity, volunteering, etc) - Effective in being appointed to positions in government by kings and queens because they are educated (well versed, good at public speaking, can read) - Protestant and Catholic reform had tremendous after-effects and impacts → Determined the proper way to worship - Protestants challenged Papal authority - Catholics - Council of Trent; question authority - Printing press → Bibles to people, literacy rates increased, education increased, people got excited, improvements in politics, science math Religious Divisions - Protestantism changes politics in 16th c. Europe - Holy Roman Emperor remained Catholic, but German princes turned to Protestantism (resented the power of the Pope and HRE) - It is more in present-day Austria -- not Rome - Roman Emperor does not have that much power → feudalism - The biggest threat to the HRE is the Ottomans and the French to the left - During this time, the Hapsburgs were the line of kings in power of the HRE - A big political strategy was to marry everybody to have control over multiple states and make political alliances - Catholics and Protestants fought a lot during the Habsburg reign and had a lot of violence because of religious difference - In 1550, it got way out of control (extremely violent) - 1555 - the government steps in and signs a treaty called the Peace of Augsburg - Results: each German state of that region would decide if they would be primarily Catholic or Protestant (based on the majority). If one was unhappy with this, they would be relocated to another state with the help of the government - 1618-1648 - Thirty Years War - religious problems begin to arise again → worse than last time, over ⅓ of the population is killed. The regions and the HRE were weakened → independent states) - Ends with the Treaty of Westphalia - makes the German states independent → The strongest state is Prussia (military-wise) - France also benefited → loves the fact that the HRE was weakened so they can push into that territory themselves Absolutism - Political system in which one ruler or leader has complete power/authority over a country France, England, etc developments in politics, economy, etc France - After the Hundred Years War drove the English from France - France began to unify and centralize authority in a strong monarchy - Absolute Monarchy - a monarch has absolute power over the people - Religious differences among people - French Protestants (Huguenots) vs Catholics - 1598 - Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes → put into place to create an environment of peace and tolerance; trying to limit conflict; all the advisors knew that if there were internal problems, it would be difficult to rule - Henry IV became the first Bourbon king - Bourbons ruled France until 1792 - Cardinal Richelieu (Catholic advisor to Bourbons) - helped strengthen the French crown (just because he is Catholic does not mean he hates the Protestants, but tries to keep everything tolerant. Also, his role of compromises and attacking his opponents) - New bureaucratic class was created = noblesse de la robe (nobles who wear robes) - People who are the eyes and ears throughout France and update the king (taxes and enforcing the laws) - Cardinal Mazarin - successor = prepared France even further to be a strong nation under Louis XIV (continues to keep France a strong nation) Absolute Monarchy - Characteristics - Divine right (God appointed them into power - Strong, professionalized army (well equipped → the most powerful army at this point) - High taxes to support wars (they want to have a legacy by supporting war) - Utilize bureaucracies (usually in the form of favoritism or nepotism, but had eyes and ears throughout France) - King Louis XIV reigned (1643-1715) → starts at 4, as he gets older, he gets more involved - “I am the state” - Patron of the arts, Palace of Versailles → glorified France and made it look nicer - Stopped conveying Estates-General (French parliament) and passed his own laws (all him, all the time → he wants to pass his own laws, no other gov opinion going against him) - Revokes the Edict of Nantes → he did not like the Protestants; created hostility and forced the Protestants out of France (influenced the Catholics to help kick the Protestants out to create a Catholic France) - He wants to go to war and gain more territories → hires an advisor (Jean Baptiste Colbert: chief advisor to the king and manages the money of France) - Successful in increasing the size of France, but there were some downsides: it set France back economically because they were draining the treasury to fund wars - Sent bureaucrats (his eyes and ears) to provinces - More King Louis XIV - Created state-run manufacturing - Promoted internal economy to improve tax revenues for wars - Limited imports from other nations; uses colonies to provide raw materials - Absolute monarchies set up in Prussia, Spain, Austria-Hungary → Louis XIV was an example to other states and influenced them to set their states up in an absolute monarchy (he was the model) - Towards the end of his reign → The War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) - In Spain → Charles II of Spain on his deathbed and gets progressively ill; trying to figure out the future of Spain because he does not have any children so they have to find some connection to the throne to fill the void - Louis XIV hoped for it to fall from somewhere in his family - An idea for splitting up the land and giving a piece to each country -- Louis XIV and advisors disagree - Philip V (Duke of Anjou) → chosen as successor; grandson of Louis XIV - caveat: he can become the Spanish King, however, he would have to renounce the French throne (Louis XIV was not happy about this) - The Peace of Utrecht (1713) - confirms Philip as ruler of the Spanish throne; the same person cannot control Spain and France at the same time Parliament Monarchy - Britain used a parliamentary monarchy - King shared power with representatives selected by the nobility and upper urban classes - Henry VIII passes → power goes to Edward VI (who ends up dying at a young age) - Regiancy (advisors rule) but died at 15-16 so never got to rule - He was the first monarch to be raised Protestant and continue that trend - When he dies, his sister takes the throne → Mary I (1553-1558) - She wanted to reverse the Reformation because she was raised Catholic; she restored the Roman Catholic Church (people were unhappy and committed violence) - Bloody Mary → she starts max executions of people who disagree with her - Her sister Elizabeth I (1558-1603) takes over when Mary dies of cancer - She is the last Tudor monarch - Does much more stuff than her sister → she reverses the reversal and makes England back into Protestantism - She also kills people but not to the same extent as her sister - She oversees a golden age of the arts in England (Elizabethan Age) - Oversees commercial expansion and colonization of the New World - She helped establish the British East India Company - After Elizabeth dies → no successor so James I (1603-1625) takes the throne - He was the son of the Queen of Scotland; they had some ties to the English throne and had conversations with the English parliament so James could rule England and Ireland as Mary Queen of Scots remained in Scotland - House of Stuart (new family of Europe) - When James came into power, there were once again issues between Protestants and Catholics (James was a closeted Catholic but was very big in accommodating all religions to allow everyone to get along) - People still didn’t trust him and thought he was using them - The Puritans don’t recognize the power of the king when it comes to religion so they leave for the New World and establish the Plymouth Colony - He begins to assert himself as an absolute monarch - The True Law of Free Monarchy - allows the monarch to make laws that he sees fit without going through parliament's approval - Early tension between the monarchy groups and parliament groups, but James ended up passing away - Charles the 1st (James’s son) - He wants to do things his own way without parliamentary consent - Charles will sign - He's only doing it for the sake of compensation/getting the money he needs - He starts to ignore it after he gets the money he needs - Rules by divine right (people start to go into panic mode) → he ends up dissolving parliament - He did not call parliament for 11 years; in 1640, he started to get desperate again for money (the economy was drained from wars) → he called on parliament again to make bills to get money for war - The Long Parliament (1640-1660) -they are in session until they all agree; limits the power of the monarchy - Rebellions start back up again in England, Ireland, and Parliament. Tension between the Parliament and Charles, they cannot agree → erupts in civil war 1642-1649: English Civil War - Assertion of Parliament’s power over the British monarch - Parliamentarians (Roundheads) vs Royalists (cavaliers) - Fought over what powers the monarch and parliament have (who has more power or is it equal) - Results: 1. Trial and execution by the beheading of Charles I 2. Excil of his son Charles II (did not want that royal line near England) 3. Replaced English monarchy with the Commonwealth of England - Oliver Cromwell (Prot)(1653-1658) - he leads the commonwealth with the title of “lord protector” - Rules over the commonwealth with religious intolerance → commits acts of violence against Catholics (and all of Ireland) - Everyone in England is freaking out → in 1658, he dies - 3 years later, he was given a posthumous execution so he could pay for his crime (he died twice?) - His son takes over for a bit -- doesn’t do too much → parliament asks Charles II to return to England (1662) - Stuart Restoration (1660-1688) - the monarchy is back; Charles II is asked to come back - Charles II advocated for religious tolerance and wanted to make sure everyone did not get arrested without due process (Habeas Corpus Act - 1679) - Charles II passes → his brother takes over: James II (1685) - James II is extremely Catholic and is thinking about creating a Catholic state - believes in divine right (the people in England do not like this) - He starts doing things without parliament's consent (parliament also does not like him) - Parliament gets in contact with the Netherlands → William and Mary (protestant) → asks them to become joint rulers of the Netherlands and England Glorious Revolution of 1689 - Bloodless overthrow of English King James II - Push him out and put William and Mary - Installation of a protestant government - 1689 - English Bill of Rights → ensures that the powers of the monarchy are limited Significance of Parliamentary Monarchy - Right of revolution - Monarchs should be restrained by institutions that protect the public - Power of parliament over king - Political groups can compete for influence Northern Renaissance, Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment Italian Renaissance vs. Northern Renaissance - Italian renaissance - Challenged medieval intellectual, religious values - Focused on humanism - City-states in North Italy - Northern Renaissance - Intense religious devotion → more emphasis on religion (way that the nation was set up) - Artists travel to Italy (inspired by art from Italy) - Detailed realism, naturalism (focus on nature) - also a religious style in the Renaissance - Landscape/genre painting - 1450: Johannes Gutenberg, invented the mechanical movable type printing press (an influential invention in this period) - Van Eyck - Dutch (realist artist) - Durer - German (realist artist) - Niccolo Machiavelli - wrote a book called The Prince - A guide for monarchs - how to get power and how to maintain power - You need a combination of love and fear → show love and compassion, but also an element of fear so people do not take advantage of the King (the right balance, not too much but not too little) - Started to spark conversations about the difference between Church and State → led to the idea that Monarchies should be separate from the Church - Sir Tomas More - wrote Utopia - What does the ideal society look like and if that society was possible - William Shakespeare - Erasmus - wrote In Praise of Folly - Shows political moves that have been made up to this point in history that were errors - France, Low Countries, Germany, and England → slowly but surely come into their own during the Renaissance Period Scientific Revolution - 17th and 18th centuries: New ideas in science that laid foundations for modern scientific thought - Create laws for nature based off of Greek and Islamic science - Copernicus (Polish) - Disproves Ptolemy’s geocentric theory - Proves heliocentric theory - Galileo (Italian) - Confirms heliocentric theory using a telescope - Observes the motions of planets - Condemned by the Catholic Church - The Index (his book) gets banned - People start to question if the Catholic Church is being corrupt - Wiliam Harvey (English) and Andreus Versalius - Hands on approach for science → create medicine - Circulatory system powered by heart - Study the body and make more observations to improve medicine - Rene Descartes (French) - Father of Modern Philosophy - Skeptical of accepted learning - I think, therefore I am - Ask questions, don’t take things at face value - Isaac Newton (English) - Defined forces of gravity - Basic principles of motion - Francis Bacon (English) - Empirical research: utilize observations, data - Science is used for the betterment of mankind → improving fields - Science institutes established to advance research - Growing belief that people could control and calculate the environment - Insurance companies - Doctors attack healers - Deism: a god created the Earth, but it's only role was to set natural laws in motion - Reconciles religion with science - Voltaire → at the forefront of the movement of Deism (promoter) - The West becomes a leading center for science research The Enlightenment - Scientific Revolution led to the Enlightenment - Change in attitudes about politics, society, economics - Continued scientific advances - Basic Beliefs: - Human beings are good but can be educated to be better - Reason is the key to truth - Religions that rely blindly on faith and do not tolerate diversity are wrong - Began with philosophes (French philosophers) meeting in salons - Denis Diderot: editor of the Encyclopédie, compilation of knowledge Political/Economic Enlightenment Theories - Social contract: promoted by John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau - Governments must act on behalf of the people and through the consent of the people - Montesquieu - french philosopher who came up with the separation of powers with checks and balances so one branch does not become too powerful - Scottish Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776) - Laissez-faire economics - People act in self-interest but thrive through competition, promote economic advance - Government should avoid regulation in favor of the operation of individual initiative and market forces of supply and demand - Three distinct roles of the Government: 1. Protect its citizens from invasion (having an army) 2. Defending citizens from injustice 3. Keeping up with public works 4. Should not get involved in economics Family Changes 1450-1750 - Religious change promoted greater concentrations on family life with Protestantism - Enlightenment encourages marriages based on love - Raises the status of women - Later marriage ages - Change in attitude towards children - Emphasis on nuclear families - Limit family birth rates - Educational toys and books Social Protest 1450-1750 - Beginning of the proletariat in the West - People without access to wealth-producing property - Population growth and rising food prices - Social tension; new ideas of equality - Witchcraft persecution, 1450-1750 - 60,000-100,000 suspected witches killed - New resentment against poor - Role of women? Religious tension? Commercialism Commercial Revolution - Protestantism viewed involvement in commerce more favorably than Catholicism - Inflation in Western Europe caused by gold and silver imports - Production could not keep pace with wealth - Trading companies were backed by governments but unregulated - Specialty areas - Wine, cheese, wool, shoemaking, metalwork - Prosperity increased for ordinary people Ongoing Change in Commerce and Manufacturing - Economic change - Commerce continued to spread - Europeans began to buy processed goods - Sugar, coffee, tea - Agricultural change - Draining swamps for more land - Seed-drills, use of scythes - Capitalism spread - Investments in hopes for larger profits - Domestic manufacturing Russia Tsars!! Russian Expansion 1462-1795 - Russia expands towards the east (to the Pacific) → modern-day Russia Background History - Russia is still orthodox (continuity) - Coming off the heels of the Mongol rule in Russia → Princess united in Moscow, pushed out the Mongols and solidified a unique state - New model of government and religion (based on the Constantinople period of the Byzantine Empire) - Tsars (zars) - top of the social hierarchy + further established Russian church and state - Russia previous to this period, did not experience the Renaissance cuz Mongols cut them off → now they are exposed (playing catch up) - Good position for trading → centrally located (between east and west) - Ex: East → Russia expands to Siberia → results in the fur trade ($$$) - Exports furs to China and Europe - West → connects with England → imports cloth from England - 1555 - trade agreements with England from 1555 and forward - South → Silk Road connections → Russia will get access to luxury goods (like silk) from places like India and Persia - Main Exports from Russia: fur, grain, leather, iron, wood - As time goes on, Russia links with a lot more places in Europe → connections to all of Russia’s major cities: Kiev, Moscow, and St. Petersburg - All of the rulers of the Russian empire look to the West to improve their technology (weapons, scientific ideas, ideas of the Enlightenment) Ivan III 1462-1505 - Previously was a prince of Moscow → one of the last guys to kick out the Mongols and declare Russia free of Mongol RUle - Ivan the Great - Next step is to gain power (competes against other princes) → unofficially calls himself the tsar to legitimize his power - Again additional prestige through marriage (more legitimized) - Marries Zoe (the last niece of Byz Empire) → gives religious legitimacy to the Orthodox Church - Brings together most of Russia (controls and unites the Russian states) - In Moscow (capital), he started to make a lot of changes because he wanted it to be the center → he rebuilt the Kremlin - Kremlin - Central citadel (fortress inside the city) → make it symbolic that this is the center of Moscow - Transforms Moscow into a major trading center - Kiev will still be important for trade (2nd place now -- not first place) - These changes will show the growing status of all the tsar - Social hierarchy (kinda like feudalism) - tsars - Nobles (boyars) - wealthy landowning aristocratic group - Merchants (traders) - Peasants (surfs) → majority; work for a boyar (who protects them) -- no personal freedoms (somewhat slaves) - Him and the nobles will begin to have tensions → nobles want more power (expand capabilities) → have a back-and-forth with the tsars →Ivan wins - Instead of executing them, he brings them into Moscow to watch over them (because they still have political importance and can be useful) → shows the power of the tsar Ivan IV 1547-1584 - Grandson of Ivan III - Vasil the adequate is his dad (mid) - Ivan the terrible (fearsome) - Responsible for establishing absolute rule in Russia - Very big expansionist (campaigns towards Siberia -- eastward -- successful) → gunpowder weapons they now have access to + use of landmines (lure enemy and then blow them up) - Commissioned the building of St. Basil’s Cathedral -- reminder that the Church and Tsar were united in Russia - As campaigns go east → he wants to control the fur trade in Siberia (profitable - gatekeeper) - Hires the Stroganovs (wealthy family) to hire a band of warrior peasants (Cossacks) -- very successful - Control of the Volga RIver -- flows into the Caspian Sea and they can trade with more people through those trade routes (Persians, ottomans) - He did a lot for russia trade →increased amount of goods traded and who they traded with - Laid foundations for expansion (shared a lot of features with Western expansion -- Europe in the New World) - Converting people to orthodox - Disease (no immunities) - Gain resources (wanted things to make a profit off of) - Has a lot of trouble with the nobles because they are plotting assassinations to get - Created a paramilitary group -- Oprichnina -- control the nobles at home (1560s) - Rules over a reign of terror → anyone who was seen as a threat would be executed (even cities) → paranoia - He even kills his own son - 1581 - his son was married and his wife was pregnant - She was wearing immodest clothing → beat her → caused miscarriage --.> son mad and fighting → ivan killed his son with a spear in the room → ivan became more paranoid (slept in different rooms, ppl would taste his food + drinks) - 1584 -- many different health problems that came from his paranoia → he dies - He killed everyone so no heir to the throne → up in the air (what's next??) Times of Trouble 1603-1613 - All of the boyars are fighting each other for control over Russia - Not easy → tons of assassination plots (that are successful) - Ends in 1613 → One of the lords calls a meeting to stop this killing (nothing is progressing and no stability) - Hold an election → new tsar is Micheal Romanov - Romanov dynasty (1613-1917) → stability and less killing each other - Romanov Dynasty (a lot of continuity) - Absolute power - Wants to expand Russian borders - Ruthless → anyone who wants to cross them will suffer the consequences - Surfs are still slaves (no real advancements) - Boyars are also in the same spot - The late 1600s -- same tactics as their predecessors (Cossacks hired by the boyars who are hired by the Tsars to expand) - Pacific Ocean to Kiev - 3 different groups have conflicting desires - Tsar → wants to expand his power - Boyars → wants to gain more power (overpower the tsar and the church) - Church → push away the tsar (he controls them too much) Peter the Great (Peter I) 1682-1725 - Competition for the throne with his half-sister (Sophia) -- they both believe that they are the rightful heir to the throne - They have factions of supporters that clash → Peter wins and beats Sophia (he forces her to join a convent so she doesn’t challenge his power again) - Consolidates his power - Move against the Orthodox Church (Peter wanted further control than what the Church was dictating -- claims divine right) - God picked him so he can decide what the church does - The Patriarch is the head of the Church - Peter is going to abolish the Patriarch and he incorporates the Church into his government - Establishes a new position and system instead of the Patriarch → called the Holy Synod (made up of a bunch of people -- a group of clergymen who only answer to Peter) - Church reforms met with mixed reactions (practices didn’t change so some were okay with it, but others wanted there to be a Patriarch → some of the peasants tried to rebel but Peter shut them down) - Late 1600s - Peter was very interested in the West (he wanted to westernize Russia) - He goes to visit Western Europe (dresses up like a commoner to keep it lowkey) - People find him out (he's hella tall and a lot of people) -- didn’t matter, he was just there to observe and bring over technology - Technology geared towards military (army and navy) - Uses it to start to expand Russia → control of Baltic Sea (territories for trading) - Peter created the port city called St. Petersburg → became their capital - More reforms - He also wants Russia to look like the West (customs, mannerisms, their style) - Imitates it in Russia - Pushes for more education (math, medicine, sciences) - Women gain rights (a bit more freedom than in the past -- middle and upper class; surfs were stuck, even the men) - New western-based industries (agriculture, manufacturing, shipbuilding) - Shipbuilding is one of the key industries for Russia (especially for the navy he is creating) - Short term - not a lot of revenue (more long-term profit from these reforms) → raises taxes on the peasants (bounce back economically at their expense) - Reorganized the government → provinces (each province has administers that oversee tax collection and the law) - Creates a senate and council of advisors - In St. Petersburg, many advancements in science and technology (people from the West and locals -- engineers and scientists focus inside St. Petersburg) Catherine the Great (Catherine II) 1762-1796 - Married to Peter III (grandson of Peter I) before becoming Tsarina - Peter III dies unexpectedly so she takes the throne (tsarina) - She was a German-born protestant → people were a bit hesitant when taking the throne (but she was educated) - To avoid the chaos, she converts to the Russian Orthodox Church → legitimize her power and so people trust her - She wants to westernize Russia and also include Enlightened ideas - Enlightened Absolutism (absolute ruler with enlightened ideas that are somewhat incorporated) - Wanted to be progressive → new laws - Codify the Russian law system (social contract; official document) - Wanted to end the use of torture/cruel and unusual punishments - Continues to promote enlightened education - Continues to westernize the culture of Russia - Builds a school for girls → applies to middle and upper-class women - Oversees the creation of a smallpox vaccine - Oversees minor tax reforms - Some of these policies were geared toward the middle class (not the nobles → this gets them mad so resistance to these reforms) - Catherine pushes back - The peasants were mad cuz she was talking to the boyars - Who should she support? The middle class or the boyars → supports the boyars (long run, she needs the boyars to get stuff done) - Boyars hesitant to make this deal (how can they trust) → she makes them tax-exempt - The peasants are super pissed but since the boyars control the military, they put down these rebellions - Cossack Rebellion - led by a small band of warrior peasants (does a bit of damage against the Russian Army, but it ends up being put down) - Overseas expansion - Russo-Turkish Wars 1768-1774 and 1787-1792 (mixed results) - gaining territories on the Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea (trade) - More territories on land → want to promote agriculture (need to accommodate the expanding population) - expensive but make money back cuz of their trade conditions and surpluses of food -- some stability - Serfs stuck in their rank → limits growth Islam, Japan, China Gunpowder Empires (Ottomans, Safavids, Mughals) - Characteristics, accomplishments, impacts, etc Prosperity in Asia - While Europe was facing religious wars, Asian empires were expanding and consolidating power, and experiencing flourishing trade - Mughal and Ottoman empires had effective and esteemed rulers - Ming China gained worldwide recognition for its elegant manufactures and its ability to govern an enormous, diverse population (competing on a global scale) Islamic Gunpowder Empires - Ottoman Empire →longest lasting out of the 3 (lasting until WWI) - Safavid Dynasty - Mughal Empire - Each holds military success using newly developed firearms → better military organization since they need to develop new tactics with the new weapons (changes in technology = changes in strategy) - All three more involved in artistic and architectural changes - All declined because of the rise of Western Europe (outcompeted); they do not really modernize or westernize like Russia ( led to their downfall) - All three are taking advantage of the fall of the Mongols Culture in the Islamic World - In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal expansion allowed for funding of cultural development → more resources for cultural development - Schools, building projects, books, artwork, and luxury goods (Silk Road networks and thrived on trade) - Islamic cultural and intellectual life reflected the three distinct worlds, with each developing a relatively autonomous form of Muslim culture - Take different forms in the different empires, but they shared a common faith with Islam and develop independently of each other Ottoman Empire - Muslim Ottoman Empire founded by Osman Bey (became sultan) - began to unify the people of eastern Turkey to challenge the Byzantine Empire (largest and most enduring of three empires) 🙄 - Controlled what is most of modern day Turkey by 1453 - Constantinople was capital city (renamed Istanbul) - Following Osman is Mehmed the Conqueror -- rules between 1451-1481 (established Constantinople because of gunpowder) - Under his rule is a prosperous city due to its location - dependent on trade -- control the Bosphorus Strait and connect the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea - They charge taxes on places like Venice (yearly tax) - Becomes a center of Islam - Tolerant of other religions more so than previous Muslim empires at first (expand relatively unfazed as they were not fought due to religious conflicts) - Ottomans expanded (from Greece eastward to Persia and all the way around the Mediterranean into Egypt and North Africa) → had one of the largest empires - As the empire grew - so did religious persecution - To conquer large territories, Ottomans enslaved children of Christian subjects and turned them into warriors known as Janissaries - Convert them to Islam, teach them Islamic teachings, and teach them all these skills of becoming a warrior (successful with using gunpowder weapons, but also bows and arrows) - Much of this expansion was under Selim (1512); he claimed to be the rightful heir to Islamic tradition under Arab caliphs (Istanbul becomes center of Islamic civilization) - 8 yrs later - Suleiman I (the Magnificent) rose to power - Longest reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire - Built up Ottoman military and encouraged study of the arts (Golden Age) - Expansion towards Europe and takes advantage of a weakened Holy Roman Empire - Takes over territories of Hungary →tried to expand to Vienna (Austria) but was unsuccessful - The Naval power increases and there are more building projects under his control (stimulates the economy and gives jobs to people) - He reforms a legal system and creates a new set of laws for the Ottomans - Very involved in the Indian Ocean Network Ottoman Expansion and World Trade - Ottoman expansion on land and European expansion by sea occurred roughly at the same time and were interconnected - The Ottomans established control over trade routes interrupted by the Mongols and the Black Death, which helped spur their political expansion (take advantage) - Looking to circumvent the Ottomans, European traders began exploring the Atlantic African coast to search for new routes to South and East Asia - Looking for spices, silks, and slaves - Aided by new maritime technology - Portuguese went around Africa and onward to India - Ottoman authorities gained significant tax revenue from the caravan trade - Maintained infrastructure and security along trade routes Ottoman Expansion - By the early 17th century, the Ottomans controlled Constantinople and expansive territories in southeastern Europe, Anatolia, and the eastern Mediterranean - Blocked on the eastern front by the Safavids, the Ottomans pushed westward with the most powerful military in the world - Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, they conquered Athens, Egypt, Syria, and the Balkan territories - becoming a major player in European affairs - The Ottomans became a major sea power - The largest armada in the world - Advanced cartography and maritime technology - Entered the Indian Ocean as a rival to the Portuguese The Ottoman Empire and Egypt - Biggest threat to breakaway pressures in Ottoman Empire was from Egypt in the 17th century (overwhelm them with the technology) - Egypt, gained in 1517, was the Ottomans greatest conquest and wealthiest territory - Mamluks (“owned” or “possessed”) had ruled Egypt as an independent regime until the Ottoman conquest - Ottomans had allowed the Mamluks to remain - Mamluks enhanced power by the 17th century by: - Aligning themselves with Egyptian merchants and the ulama - Keeping taxes for themselves instead of paying the Ottoman administrators The Ottoman Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries - Koprulu reforms -- financial reforms and anti corruption measures (goes downhill after Suleiman so they create reforms) - Tired to take Vienna in 1683 but were unsuccessful (only send eastern fronts and they wear themselves thin so it results in territorial losses) - Treaty that ended Austro-Ottoman war resulted in substantial territorial losses, including Hungary - Influx of silver undermined Ottoman’s 16th-century version of a self-contained imperial economy, and opened up the Ottoman empire to trade with the rest of the world, producing breakaway regimes, inflation, and social discontent The Ottoman Cultural Synthesis - Ottoman culture was a blend of ethnic, religious, and linguistic elements - Balanced military and administrative traditions with those of clerics - Allowed autonomy to minority Christian and Jewish faiths - Religion and education - Sophisticated education offered three systems: - Civil and military bureaucracy came from hierarchically organized schools that culminated in the palance schools at Topkapi - Ulama judges emerged from elementary schools and went on to higher schools or madrusas - Sufi masters came from tekkes, where they learned devotional strategies and religious knowledge Science and the Arts - Ottoman intellectuals took an interest in european science - Hungarian convert Ibrahim Muteferrika set up a printing press in Istanbul in 1728 and published works on European science, history, and geography - Artists occasionally merged artistic traditions with new ideas in some instances (ex: portraiture) while keeping their own styles in other areas - Popularization of elite artistic traditions: the Tulip Period - Growing Ottoman demand for luxury goods, such as lemons, soap, pepper, metal tools, coffee, and wine Ottoman Empire Significance - Lasted to 1922 - Greatly expanded the reach of Islam - kept eastern Europe in constant state of flux -- allowed powers of Western Europe to remain dominant - Created a strong military (Janissaries) Safavid Dynasty - Chief rivals to Ottomans to the east (modern day Iran) - Centralized state based on military conquest and was dominated by Shia Islam (strong focus on religion) - Started out with a leadership by a guy name Ismail → early military hero (conquered Pursia and pushing into Iraq by 14-15 years old) → then conquers Iran - Proclaims himself as the Shah (emperor/king) - 1501-1524 - Denies all of the suni muslims → tensions with the Ottomans - Never as wealthy or as powerful as Ottomans or Mughal empires - 1541 - Lose significant battle to the Ottomans at a place called Tabriz → big border state between the Suni and Shia societies - Conflicts between them aren’t just about religion → also wanted to control trade routes - Shah Abbas I (the great) -1587-1629 → rules at the height; enlists troops that are similar to that of the janissaries (ottomans); import gunpowder weapons and pave the way for a stronger empire; solidifies thier theocracy that helps sets up Iran to where it is today - Capital - Isfahan → create schools and mosques; building projects - Engage in a lot of trade, even trading with Europe (Portugal) and gain shipping lines in the Persian gulf - After Abbas I → the rulers suck and allocate money to unnecessary things - Ruled from 1501-1722 → in 1722, there is a huge rebellion that the forces couldn’t stop, so it begins to decline and territory was taken by Russia and the Ottomans - Basically established firm hold with Shia Islam and established an army in this region Mughal Empire - 1526 – Babur (Muslim) invaded N. India and defeated the Delhi Sultanate- established Mughal Empire - Built military with central Asian horsemanship, artillery, field cannons, and gunpowder. - Within 150 years- united almost the entire subcontinent of India - Hinduism and Islam were both practiced - Akbar (Babur’s grandson 1556-1605)- unified India even more under policy of religious toleration (Hinduism and Islam practiced openly) - Skilled in alliance building, using favors and marriages to build the empire. - As Muslims and Hindus lived side by side for over a century, it resulted in a golden age - Taj Mahal is built under Shah Jahan Mughal Commerce - Mughal trade brought increasing wealth, and their power limited European intrusions into their empire. - Mughal rulers allowed the Portuguese, then other European merchants, access to a handful of their ports, on the outskirts of their empire. - Mughal rulers used newfound wealth to sponsor monumental feats of architecture and art, but the wealth also caused friction among Indian rulers, merchants, and poorer regions. Mughal Empire - After Akbar- two changes forever change India: - Religious toleration ended (Under Aurangezeb- pro-muslim policies created; wars against portions of India not under Mughal control; taxes (jizya) against Hindu’s return; Hindu temples destroyed; Hindu’s were persecuted towards the 18th century-began to fight back) - Arrival of Europeans- Portuguese and British fight over Indian Ocean trade routes; British East India Company begins to conquer Indian territory Power and Culture under the Mughals - Mughal high culture depended on agricultural taxes, silver, and openness to foreign trade. - Religious diversity encouraged a culture that included non-Muslims. - Islamic traditions were dominant in the political and judicial spheres, while Muslims and Hindus alike participated in the flourishing arts. Gunpowder Empires - Each of these three empires had considerable military success using the newly developed firearms, especially cannons and small arms, in the course of their empires - Autocratic rule: emperors imposed their will on the state - Harem politics: women often influenced policies, selections - Long distance trade important to all three empires Ming and Qing dynasties - Major impacts and developments Prosperity in Ming China - Similar to Mughal India, Ming China’s economy also soared in the sixteenth century. - Ming China confined European merchants to port cities. - European silver from the Americas contributed to China’s growing economy, allowing money rather than goods to circulate. - One of the measures of the Ming’s great economic prosperity was the surge in Chinese population. - China made up one-third of the world’s population in the mid-seventeenth century, with spectacular growth in cities. - Urban prosperity enabled women to work in a wide variety of positions, such as entertainers, courtesans, midwives, healers, poets, sorcerers, matchmakers, artists, and book traders. - Politically, sixteenth-century Ming faced internal discord and problems, but thrived economically, resulting in population growth and territorial expansion. China in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries - From Ming to Qing in China - Persistence of local autonomy and accelerating economic and social changes culminated in collapse of Ming dynasty in 1644 - Administrative and Economic Problems - Zhu Yijun, the Wanli emperor (1573–1620) rand other emperors were largely ceremonial, with little actual control over the vast bureaucracy - Expanding opportunities for trade led many individuals to circumvent official rules - Pirates, supposedly Japanese but in fact often Chinese, wreaked havoc on Chinese coast - In good times, these “pirates” acted like merchant elite, mingling with imperial officials and moving among the mosaic of East Asian cultures - Influx of silver from the New World caused severe economic problems - By the early seventeenth century, silver imports exceeded domestic bullion (uncoined gold or silver) twenty times to one - Chinese economy monetized, as silver became the primary currency - In time of silver abundance, peasants faced inflation; in times of shortage, peasants scrambled to pay taxes. - These dislocations often led to revolts Fall of the Ming Dynasty - The collapse of Ming authority - Ming’s difficulties began to affect subjects’ daily lives - Could not cope with natural disasters and food shortages in the early 16th century - Outlaw armies grew large under charismatic leaders - Rebellion led by the "dashing prince" Li Zicheng captured Beijing in 1644; Emperor committed suicide - Li Zicheng claims the throne - Ming army commander built an alliance with the Manchus China - 16th cent- Ming in decline (kept Europeans at safe distance) - Internal problems persisted; famine hurt the economy; peasant revolts - Qing Dynasty (Manchu) (1644-1911)- not ethnically Chinese - Forbade Chinese to learn Manchu language or marry Manchus - Manchu only 3% of population (needed Chinese to help run the country) - The small population of 1 million Manchus governed the Chinese population of 250 million - Civil service exam used again - Manchu emperors well steeped in Chinese culture - Qing expanded its realm in terms of territories, economy, and population - Kangxi (1661-1722) (religiously tolerant) and chief successor Qianlong (1735-1796) (not tolerant) were Confucian scholars - Both of them supported the arts and wanted to expand the empire - Kangxi conquered Taiwan, Mongolia, central Asia and Tibet - Qianlong added Vietnam, Burma, and Nepal as vassal states of China From Ming to Qing in China - The Qing Dynasty Asserts Control, continued - Manchu impositions and taxes fell mostly on peasants - Peasants began to live in border areas, planting New World crops like corn and sweet potatoes that grew better in difficult soil - Rice became the staple diet of the wealthy; peasants ate corn and sweet potatoes - Commerce flourished - By imperial decree in 1759, the Qing established the Canton system, requiring European traders to have Chinese guild merchants act as guarantors for behavior and payment of fees - The Qing Dynasty Asserts Control, continued - The Qing forced tributary relations with Korea, Vietnam, Burma, and Nepal - The Qing expanded territorially into central Asia, Tibet, and Mongolia - The Ming relied on Chinese agriculture for its economic health, and not overseas trade, which some historians see as their failure to adapt to a changing world - New level of Chinese prosperity China - China stayed focused on its own land or its immediate surrounding areas(previously mentioned) - Began to trade with Europeans, but if felt threatened by them, they were expelled. - Europeans brought tea, porcelain, and silk and gave the Chinese silver in exchange Japan - Reunification Tokugawa Shogunate Japan - impacts and developments Japan - 16th century- shoguns continued to rule with emperor as figurehead - Over the next century- feudal power declined and centralized power rose - 1542- Portuguese establish trade w/ Japan - 1600- Tokugawa Shogunate created- consolidated power away from the emperor - New class system created (No movement between classes) - Tokugawa moved capital to Edo (modern day Tokyo) - Tokugawa created a hereditary shogunate that lasted until 1867 - Reversal in attitudes toward Western influence - Christians persecuted - 1635- National Seclusion Act=prohibited Japanese from traveling abroad and foreigners from visiting Japan - Tokugawa afraid Japan would be overrun by foreign influences- Japan was off limits to foreign countries - Allowed Japanese culture to thrive (No foreign influence) - Buddhism and Shinto remained at center of culture - New art forms emerged (Kabuki theatre; Haiku) - Japanese “renaissance” Religion and Chinese Influence - Chinese influence was large in high Japanese Tokugawa culture. - Imperial histories of Japan written in Chinese style - Chinese law codes and other books had significant readership. - Buddhism grew but did not replace the indigenous belief system of ancestor veneration and worshiping gods of nature, later called “Shinto.” - Neo-Confucianism on morality and behavior competed with Shintoism. - Emergence of “native learning” - Reaction to influence of Chinese Buddhism and desire to honor Japan’s own greatness - Denounced Buddhism as foreign contaminant European Influences - “Dutch learning” or European ideas circulated openly in Tokugawa Japan after the shogunate lifted the ban on foreign books. - Debate over what to borrow from China and Europe reflected the new realities of global exchange. - They did not believe that cultural borrowing from foreign sources was a sign of inferiority or subordination. Culture and Politics in East Asia - In both China and Japan, economic growth supported elite and popular culture. - China’s booming internal market fueled cultural developments that drew mainly on domestic traditions. - Growing population and commercialization encouraged circulation of ideas - Circulation of books - Religious rituals - Advances in cartography - In Japan, the Tokugawa promoted Confucian hierarchy, seeking to limit the influence of ideas that would challenge the ideal social order.