Health Science Concepts and Applications PDF

HOSA BOWL & HCE​ HEALTH SCIENCE CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS ALL CHAPTERS ARE COMPLETED. NOTES ARE FINISHED. 178 Pages. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS ​ The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Affordable Care Act/Obamacare) is a law passed in 2010 by the US Congress fo...

HOSA BOWL & HCE​ HEALTH SCIENCE CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS ALL CHAPTERS ARE COMPLETED. NOTES ARE FINISHED. 178 Pages. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS ​ The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Affordable Care Act/Obamacare) is a law passed in 2010 by the US Congress for a major regulatory reform of US healthcare since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965 ​ National Consortium for Health Science Education - published standards to provide a clear & consistent understanding of industry and post-secondary knowledge that healthcare workers must possess* ​ ​ * Reading, writing, math, life sciences, med term, history of healthcare ​ Throughout history, illnesses were attributed to witches, demons, astrological influences, or gods making mischief Chinese ​ Created acupuncture; strategic insertion of small needles into the body to treat disease and pain ○​ Often used for chronic pain and infertility ​ The First to study the pulse; diagnosis ​ Believed that examining the characteristics of a patient’s pulse [strength, rate, regularity] helps determine the severity of an illness Egyptians/Babylonians ​ Began the practice of medical examinations ​ Introduced concepts of diagnosis & prognosis ​ Recorded history; medical practices & developments using hieroglyphics Greeks ​ Built aqueducts to bring clean water — the Greeks realized that most diseases originated from the contaminated water they used/consumed — into cities and sewers to rid waste ​ Hippocrates — ○​ Greek doctor or Father of Medicine ○​ Separated the discipline of medicine from religion [the product of environmental factors, diet, and living habits created illnesses] ○​ Hippocratic Oath; a promise to practice medicine honestly (still used in the modern world) 1  ​ Portion of the Hippocratic Oath: “I will follow that method of treatment which according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patient and abstain from whatever is harmful or mischievous.” ​ Galen — ○​ Surgeon ○​ Performed eye and brain surgeries (not attempted again until 2,000 years after his death) ​ The Greeks created the caduceus; symbolized peace and was carried by Hermes (messenger of the Greek gods) ○​ US Army Medical Corps adopted the caduceus as the staff of Aesculapius, a greek God of medicine ​ Staff of Aesculapius — a branch with a single snake wrapped around it [resembles the caduceus]* * The Staff of Aesculapius & the caduceus both have the same symbolization Romans ​ Created hospitals [separate buildings to accommodate the sick] ​ Doctors carried medical equipment whenever they went to emergencies ​ Invented surgical instruments; forceps, scalpels, surgical needles ​ First to perform the cataract surgery [cataract — when the iris of the eye becomes cloudy] Native Americans ​ History of 40,000 years of healers ​ Did not have a written language, traditions were passed on orally from healer to healer ​ Navajo and Cherokee tribes used herbs and natural pain relievers ​ A person who recovered from a serious illness was thought to have supernatural powers ​ Tribes prayed to the spirits to intervene with a cure for the sick Dark and Middle Ages (400 CE to 1400 CE) ​ 400 CE [Common Era]: The Roman Catholic Church taught that life and death were determined by God [little interest in learning how the body functioned/curing disease by man’s hands] ​ Vocabularies — ○​ Epidemic — an outbreak of a disease that affects a group of people and spreads rapidly ​ Examples of epidemics: Smallpox, syphilis, tuberculosis, diphtheria, Bubonic Plague ○​ Antibiotics — drugs that slow the growth of/destroy bacteria; used to treat infections ○​ Vaccination — Use of medicines that contain weakened/dead bacteria/viruses to build immunity & prevent disease ○​ Quarantine — [COVID-19 incident] Process of isolating people who have been exposed to infectious/contagious disease ​ Islamic/Arabic doctors contributed to the disciplines of medicine of anatomy, ophthalmology, pharmacology, physiology, surgery, and pharmaceutical sciences ○​ Established various hospitals dedicated to the care of the sick & injured ​ Maimonides (1135-1204) 2  ○​ Jewish philosopher, one of the most prolific [inventive] biblical scholar, doctor of the Middle Ages ○​ Described numerous medical conditions; asthma, diabetes, hepatitis [hepa- = liver, -itis = inflammation], pneumonia ○​ Emphasized the importance of moderation and a healthy lifestyle ​ Barber Surgeon ○​ Could practice surgery, dentistry, bloodletting [a procedure thought to rid the body of disease-causing substances circulating in the blood] ○​ Traveled with armies ○​ Often performed amputations [cutting/slicing off dead body parts] ○​ Colors associated with Barber Surgeons: red, white, blue ​ Red — blood ​ Blue — veins* ​ White — bandages/tourniquet used to raise veins * Veins - blue, Arteries - red ​ Women were not allowed to practice medicine during the Middle Ages; but were allowed to be nurses & midwives [birth nurses at homes] ​ The Renaissance (1400-1700) ○​ 1600s: Doctors began using observations and careful note-taking ○​ Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (Dutch dry goods store owner & Father of microscopy) invented the microscope ​ Observed specimens; bacteria, yeast, red blood cells, sperm, tiny microorganisms ​ The Industrial Revolution (1700-1900s) ○​ Invented the telegraph & railroad lines for faster communication and travel ○​ Developed factories using better technologies; mass production of more sophisticated medical equipment — finer syringe needles, microscope lenses, stethoscope [listens to patient’s chest cavity, heart, and pulse] ○​ Regulated public health laws to control the spread of diseases [due to overcrowded immigration and US natives] ​ Vaccination: administration of dead/weakened microorganisms of a disease that increases a person’s immunity/resistance to a disease ○​ Edward Jenner (1749-1823) — ​ English doctor ​ Developed the practice of vaccination ​ Observed people who worked around cows & horses developed cowpox [a virus causing sores] ​ Smallpox was a highly infectious (often fatal) disease caused by a poxvirus ○​ Symptoms: Fever, headache, inflamed skin sores ​ Vaccinated with the fluid from cowpox blisters ○​ Vaccinations helped with cholera, anthrax, rabies, tetanus, diphtheria, typhoid fever, vice versa ​ Pain Management (1900) ○​ Ether was first available as an inhalable anesthetic 3  ​ Women in Medicine ○​ Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) — ​ Increased participation of nurses/women in medical care ​ Reduce mortality that resulted from lack of hygiene and nutrition ​ Insisted bed linens be changed frequently for proper sanitization, rooms be well ventilated, chamber pots emptied, walls & floors scrubbed regularly ​ Laid the foundation for professional nursing; establishment of nursing school St. Thomas’ Hospital in London, England in 1860 ○​ Elizabeth Blackwell (1821 - 1910) — ​ Graduated with M.D. degree ​ First woman to study & practice medicine in the US ​ Her and her sister, Emily, worked at the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children for 40 years ​ 1868; established the Women’s Medical College in New York ○​ Clara Barton (1821-1912) — ​ Formed the American Red Cross ​ Teacher & clerk ​ Civil War; dedicated herself to the care of the soldiers, gathering supplies from all over the country ​ Recognized as a hero all over the world ​ Received the Iron Cross, the Cross of Imperial Russia, International Red Cross medal ○​ Pathogens and Sterilization ​ Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865) — ​ introduced the concept of hand washing ​ Hungarian Doctor ​ Louis Pasteur ​ French Chemist ​ carried out experiments that helped develop the modern science of microbiology ​ microbiology is the study of infectious microscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites ​ developed the first vaccine for rabies and anthrax and developed the pasteurization of milk and wine ​ Joseph Lister ​ father of antiseptic surgery ​ insisted on using soap to disinfect instruments and clean hands before doctors moved from patient to patient ​ Robert Koch ​ discovered that some diseases are caused by microorganisms called pathogens THE TWENTIETH CENTURY AND BEYOND 4  ​ in 1928, scottish doctor Alexander Fleming discovered mold that lead to the discovery of penicillin ​ penicillin became the first antibiotic to treat bacterial infections ​ mass production of penicillin had begun in 1943 ​ X-ray technology by German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen at the end of the nineteenth century ​ The electrocardiogram was developed by Willem Einthoven in 1903 ​ Discovering Radium, Insulin, and DNA ​ Radium was discovered by French scientists Marie and Pierre Curie at the beginning of the twentieth century ​ Insulin was discovered in 1922 by Fredrick Banting and Charles Best ​ Insulin is used to regulate levels of glucose in the blood ​ the discovery of DNA was credited to James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins ​ the research of Rosalind Franklin helped the discovery of DNA ​ in 1962, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery ​ Medical Machines and Electronics ​ The first heart-lung bypass machine was invented by John Gibbon, was used on a human in May, 1953 ​ The first organ transplant was a kidney transplant performed in 1954 by Dr. John P. Merrill ​ Treating Mental Illness ​ psychoanalysis is a method of treating mental and emotional disorders by encouraging the patient to speak freely about personal experiences ​ Before the twentieth century, mentally ill patients were placed in asylums ​ PTSD was before known as shell shock ​ SSRIs are known as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors ​ Genomic Medicine ​ studies a person’s DNA sequences, the order of the four chemical building blocks called bases that make up the DNA molecule ​ base orders tells scientists what genetic information is carried in a particular DNA sequence ​ a genome is defined as the complete sequence of DNA for every chromosome in the human body THE UNITED STATES HEALTHCARE INDUSTRY TODAY ​ Government Health Insurance Programs and Laws 5  ​ two of the largest public health insurance programs run by the government are Medicare and Medicaid ○​ Medicare ​ government-funded insurance for individuals over the age of 65 and people of any age who have a disability or illness ​ Funded by taxes, and eligibility is determined by the federal government ​ Divided into four parts: A, B, C, D ○​ Medicaid ​ An insurance program for people with low incomes and very few personal assets other than a home ​ paid for by state and federal taxes ​ states determine eligibility ○​ The Military Health System and TRICARE ​ TRICARE offers basic options for care: TRICARE Prime, TRICARE Extra, and TRICARE Standard ​ offers coverage to everyone -- active-duty members, retirees, and their families ​ retirees and their dependents have to chip in to cover the cost of their benefits ○​ Worker’s Compensation ​ is a form of government insurance that provides wage replacement and medical benefits for employees injured while at work ​ If an injured employee accepts worker’s compensation, he gives up his right to sue the employer for negligence ​ plans differ among states ​ most plans include payments instead of the employee’s regular wages, compensation for past and future economic losses, payment for medical bills, and payment to dependents for workers killed on the job ○​ The Affordable Care Act (ACA) ​ passed in 2010 with the intention of increasing the quality and affordability of health insurance ​ requires insurance companies cover all applicants within the new standards ​ Private, Managed Care Insurance ​ managed care is a general term for any healthcare plan that emphasizes wellness and provides healthcare through a network of doctors, hospitals, and other healthcare providers ​ managed care plans are a form of private medical insurance 6  ​ Most common are health maintenance organizations (HMOs) and the preferred provider organizations (PPOs) ○​ Health Maintenance Organizations (HMO) ​ The Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973 caused a rapid increase in the number of HMOs ​ HMOs are set up so that you receive most, or all, of your healthcare from a network provider ​ you select a primary care physician who is responsible for managing and coordinating your healthcare ​ most require a copayment at the time of a visit ​ Copayments may increase when you see a specialist and if you seek treatment from an emergency room ○​ Preferred Provider Organizations (PPO) ​ contract with a network of preferred providers from which you can choose ​ you do not have to select a primary care physician ​ you will have a choice of doctors, hospitals, and other providers within the PPO network ​ You may pay much more than HMO ​ May require an annual deductible payment for services ​ Controlling Healthcare Costs ​ Healthcare costs in the United States have been rising rapidly for several years ​ More than one-sixth of the US economy is spent on healthcare ​ Healthcare costs have risen for a variety of reasons, including the following: ​ Americans are living longer as a result of better treatments for chronic illnesses ​ Poor diet and lack of exercise have increased obesity rates, most notably in children and teens, increasing the number of diagnosed diabetics who require many years of healthcare treatment ​ Government Agencies That Provide Healthcare Services ​ Federal, state, and local governments provide healthcare services that are funded by taxes ​ Programs give direct healthcare to citizens and promote health education ​ Play a role in safeguarding our food and water supplies ○​ The United States Public Health Services ​ a federal agency that dates back to the late 1700s ​ Mission is to promote public health, but they have many specific goals and responsibilities, such as 7  ​ researching diseases that kill or cripple ​ preventing and treating drug and alcohol abuse ​ preventing and controlling diseases transmitted by people, insects, animals, air, and water ​ investigating the safety of food and drugs ​ planning better ways to deliver healthcare services ​ encouraging health personnel to work in underserved areas ​ State and local public health departments also provide services to local communities ○​ Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) ​ the acronym OSHA stands for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ​ Imposes safety and health legislation to prevent injury, illness, and death in the workplace ​ sets and enforces standards of safety and also provides training, outreach, education, and assistance to employers and employees to help ensure safe workplaces ○​ The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) ​ monitors and prevents disease outbreaks, responds to environmental emergencies and other health threats, provides research-based health information to the public ​ Develops disease prevention strategies and keeps track of national health statistics ○​ The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ​ responsible for ​ protecting the public health by ensuring that foods, are safe and properly labeled ​ ensuring that human and veterinary drugs, vaccines, biological products, and medical devices intended for human use are safe and effective ​ regulating tobacco products ​ advancing the public health by helping to speed product innovations ○​ The National Institutes of Health (NIH) ​ conducts and supports medical research ​ world’s leading agency for medical research ​ The national institutes of Health’s research programs include studies in the following areas: ​ diagnosing, preventing, and curing disease 8  ​ mental, addictive and physical disorders ​ human growth and development ​ effects of environmental contaminants ○​ The World Health Organization (WHO) ​ directs and coordinates health related matters within the United Nations system ​ provides leadership on global health issues, influencing health research, setting standards for good health outcomes, providing the required technical support to all the countries involved, and assessing and monitoring global health developments ​ current priorities include reducing, and in some cases eradicating, communicable diseases such as HIV and AIDS, Ebola, malaria, and tuberculosis ​ involved in lessening the effects of noncommunicable diseases; promoting sexual and reproductive health, development, and aging; encouraging nutrition, food security, and health eating; ensuring occupational health; and providing education on and treatment for substance abuse ​ Volunteer Health Agencies ​ receive support from donations gifts, dues from members, and fundraises examples: ​ the American Cancer Society ​ the Muscular Dystrophy Association ​ the National Association of Mental Health ​ the American Red Cross ​ play an important role in advancing good health in our communities ​ often work closely with governmental health agencies HEALTHCARE FACILITIES ​ Hospitals ​ over 6,500 in the US ​ vary by size and types of service ​ some operate as for-profit facilities while others are nonprofit ○​ Nonprofit Hospitals ​ traditional means of delivering medical care in the United States ​ does not pay state or local property taxes or federal income taxes ​ considered a charity, and operates in accord with state and federal guidelines for charities ○​ Government-Owned Public Hospitals 9  ​ receive significant funding from local, state, and federal governments ​ may charge Medicaid, Medicare, and private insurers for the care of patients ​ high concentration of free care as compared to other American hospitals ​ Many provide graduate medical education ○​ For-Profit Hospitals ​ investor-owned or publicly owned by shareholders ​ issues shares of stock to raise money to expand the hospital offering ○​ Short-Stay Hospitals ​ referred to as acute-care facilities ​ admitted to treat acute, or severe medical problems ​ very expensive ​ emergency departments are commonly found ○​ Long-Term Care Facilities ​ generally house elderly or disabled patients who have a medical problem or problems that keep them from being able to take care of themselves ​ Independent-Living Facilities ​ similar to long-term care facilities ​ residents rent or purchase an apartment in the independent-living or assisted-living facility ​ services such as meals, laundry, housekeeping, social events, transportation, and some basic medical care are provided ​ often associated with long-term care facilities ​ Trauma Centers ​ handle the most serious of emergencies ​ trained in treating serious injuries ​ highly sophisticated medical diagnostic equipment and treatment rooms designed for trauma injuries are available’ ​ leading causes of traumatic injuries are motor vehicle accidents, assaults, and falls ​ Surgical Centers ​ also called ambulatory surgery centers ​ designed to perform routine surgical procedures that do not require an overnight stay in the hospital ​ minor surgeries and cosmetic surgeries are performed in these centers ​ Doctors’ Offices ​ often have family practices that focus on providing healthcare to people of all ages ​ some focus on specialties 10  ​ often affiliated with a hospital ​ Urgent-Care Centers ​ often serve as family practices ​ treat both adults and children ​ Walk-In Clinics ​ found in department stores, pharmacies, or shopping centers ​ some are affiliated with hospitals ​ often treat minor problems ​ Dentists’ Offices ​ some focus on certain dental conditions ​ serve all ages, or specializations ​ differ in size ​ Optical Centers ​ Can be individually owned ​ can be inside large chain stores ​ Mental Health Facilities ​ provide mental health care for a variety of patients ​ often very expensive ​ Home Healthcare ​ a popular alternative to long, costly hospital stays ​ caregivers often take care of patients at home ​ Hospice Care ​ facilities that offer care for terminally ill patients ​ also called palliative care ​ focuses on relieving pain and symptoms without seeking cure ​ Kidney Dialysis Centers ​ Dialysis is the process of removing waste products and excess fluid from the body ​ provide comprehensive treatment for patients with chronic kidney disease ​ Involves a machine that removes impurities and toxins from a patient’s blood ​ patients are often waiting for a kidney transplant ​ Rehabilitation Centers ​ facilities where patients work to reestablish or relearn abilities they lost because of a serious injury or illness ​ physical therapy helps with movement or previous loss of movement ​ occupational therapy focuses on relearning activities of daily life ​ Freestanding Laboratories and Radiology Facilities 11  ​ available for blood tests ​ have the ability to produce rapid test results such as throat cultures and blood counts CONSUMER RESPONSIBILITY ​ self-advocacy, is protecting your own interests and making sure your needs are met RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR THE HEALTHCARE WORKER ​ Rules are regulations generally cover ​ treating patients with disabilities ​ patient rights ​ eligibility for Medicare and Medicaid ​ reporting facility accidents ​ reporting communicable diseases ​ how different facilities are run ​ treating patients with dignity ​ maintaining confidentiality THE FUTURE OF HEALTHCARE ​ the average life expectancy in the US has dramatically increased since 1900, when the average life expectancy was 46.3 years for men and 48.3 years for women ​ the average has increased to 75.7 for men and 80.6 for women CHAPTER 2: EXPLORING HEALTHCARE CAREERS ​ Educational Requirements ​ The amount of education you need varies from career to career and state to state ○​ High School ​ High school education will prepare a student for an entry-level position after graduation ​ Most occupations require at least a high school diploma ​ Specific health classes are helpful ○​ On-the-Job Training ​ During high school or after graduation, you can receive training to help advance your career ○​ Technical Schools ​ sometimes referred to as vocational, trade, or proprietary schools ​ Provide training for specific careers beyond high school 12  ​ Can be more expensive than community college ○​ Community College ​ usually offers a two-year degree-associate’s degree ​ students can use an associate’s degree to transfer to a four-year college, where they work towards a bachelor’s degree ​ Internships are often a part of community college programs ​ internships involve placement and training in a healthcare facility ​ usually unpaid and require completion of a specified number of hours ○​ Four-Year College or University ​ some healthcare careers requires students to obtain a bachelor’s degree ​ Some professional-level careers may prefer candidates who have earned a further degree such as a master’s degree ​ High-level positions often require an advanced degree called a doctorate degree ​ A student can earn a professional doctoral degree in medical fields such as medical doctor (MD), veterinarian (DVM), or an academic doctorate such as a doctor of philosophy (PhD) ○​ Continuing Education ​ Education continues after you are hired ​ Some employers of government agencies require you to take additional courses to maintain professional status ​ Licensure and Certification ​ Some careers require licensure and certification ​ By obtaining licensure or certifications, employees ensure they have met all of the standards required for a particular health career ○​ Licensure ​ Awarded by a state agency when a person meets the qualifications for a particular occupation. People seeking licensure must pass a licensing exam ○​ Certification ​ Certification is given as recognition for completing a specific course of study and/or passing a certification exam ​ For some, certification is voluntary THERAPEUTIC SERVICES ​ Therapeutic services offers many career possibilities ranging from driving an ambulance to working with a child who has speech problems 13 High School Diploma/ Associate’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree Master’s or Industry Professional Degree Certification/On-the-Job Training home health aide; registered nurse (RN) registered nurse (RN, nurse practitioner certified nursing BSN) (MSN, FNP); assistant (CNA); patient registered nurse (RN, care technician (PCT) BSN, MSN); doctorate of nursing practice (DNP) respiratory therapist aide respiratory therapy respiratory therapist pulmonologist (MD) technician (RRT) emergency medicine paramedic [required for exercise physiologist tech (EMT) admittance into advanced degree programs] medical receptionist; file administrative front physician assistant physician (MD); clerk; medical assistant office; clinical back (PA) physician assistant office medical assistant; (PA) office manager physical therapy physical therapy athletic trainer; speech and language assistant; sports assistant; sports physical therapist pathologist; medicine aide medicine assistant physiatrist, MD; physical therapist (MPT); doctorate of physical therapy (DPT) dental assistant dental laboratory [required for dentist (DDS) technician; dental admittance into hygienist advanced degree programs] pharmacy clerk pharmacy technician [required for pharmacist (PharmD) admittance into advanced degree programs] Mental health aide mental health counselor counselor; technician; substance psychologist; abuse counselor psychiatrist (MD) veterinarian assistant veterinarian technician [required for veterinarian (DVM) admittance into advanced degree 14  programs] occupational therapy certified occupational occupational therapist Masters of Science in aide therapy assistant (OT) Occupational Therapy (COTA) (MOT) ​ careers in the therapeutic services pathway are focused primarily on changing the health status of a patient over time ​ Health professionals in this pathway work directly with patients by providing care, treatment, counseling, and health education information ​ Nurses ​ Licensed practical nurse (LPN) and licensed vocational nurse (LVN) are different titles for the same job. In Texas and California, this nurse is called a licensed vocational nurse. Throughout all other states, this nurse is called a licensed practical nurse. This nurse works under registered nurses. It can take as little as 13 months to earn this degree, which requires licensure after training ​ To become a registered nurse (RN), you must obtain at least an associate’s degree in nursing. It may be an associate’s degree in nursing (AN) or a applied science or nursing (AAS) or an associate’s degree in nursing (ADN) ​ Further development might lead you to pursue a bachelor’s degree (BSN), a master’s degree (MSN), or a doctorate degree (DNP, DNS, or PhD) in nursing. These allow you to become a nurse administrator, manager, an instructor, or a nurse practitioner. ​ Doctors ​ Becoming a doctor requires many years of hard work that includes earning admission into colleges, universities, and medical school; studying; testing; writing; researching; and training ​ The required education can take about 10 to 15 years after high school to complete, depending on the specialty ​ Dentists ​ Dentistry is the branch of medicine that involves the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity and nearby structures ​ Individuals who have graduated from dental school are called dentists, or doctors of dental surgery (DDS) ​ After earning a bachelor’s degree, candidates for dental school take the Dental Admissions Test (DAT) to ensure they are prepared for dental school training 15  ​ Dental school usually lasts four years, and graduates earn a doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) ​ Veterinarians ​ Veterinarians care for animals by diagnosing treating, or researching their medical conditions and diseases ​ Students who wish to enter a veterinary program typically obtain a bachelor’s degree in a science-related area ​ Veterinary students are required to complete a four-year doctor of veterinary medicine (DVM) program in addition to earning their bachelor’s degree ​ Also required to obtain licensure to practice in the profession ​ Respiratory Care Workers ​ Respiratory therapists test the patient’s lung capacity and check oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in his or her blood ​ These workers give patients treatments and teach patients with chronic lung conditions to care for themselves ​ Respiratory therapists also provide emergency care to patients who have suffered strokes, electrical shock, heart failure, and other life-threatening conditions ​ Respiratory therapists take care of their equipment and do a great deal of record-keeping ​ Respiratory care workers can advance from an aide to a technician-level position, or become a respiratory therapist after earning their bachelor’s degree ​ Respiratory therapists may even advance to the level of a pulmonologist ​ Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy Workers ​ Therapists require creativity and flexibility while working with patients to find the right equipment and tools to help the varying needs of each individual ​ Physical therapists and physical therapy aides assist and direct patients in the process of rehabilitation after an injury or surgery ​ Physical therapist’s goals are to reduce pain, restore physical function, and promote healing ​ Physical therapists use exercises, stretching, and equipment to prevent pain, improve wellness and increase mobility ​ Emergency Medical Service Providers ​ Incidents as varied as automobile accidents, heart attacks, slips and falls, childbirth, and gunshot wounds require immediate medical attention ​ Medical Assistants 16  ​ Work primarily in doctors’ offices, clinics, and other outpatient medical facilities ​ Perform administrative and clinical duties needed to assist doctors in providing care DIAGNOSTIC SERVICES ​ careers involve procedures that determine the causes of diseases or disorders ​ Some workers have direct contact while others do not ​ Focuses on planning services for patients as well as performing tests accurately ​ Responsible for quality control, which involves implementing a system for verifying and maintaining a desired level of quality in a product or process, use of proper equipment, continued inspection, and corrective action as required ​ If you engaged in testing procedures, you must produce accurate results and report them in a timely manner ​ Record keeping is important ​ often work with machines ​ attention to detail is critical ​ The Clinical Laboratory ​ often called the medical laboratory ​ place where blood, urine, sputum, stool, and tissues are analyzed High School Associate’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree or Diploma/Industry Professional Degree Certification/On-the- Job Training clinical laboratory clinical laboratory clinical laboratory clinical laboratory aide; phlebotomist; technician; technologist supervisor; venipuncture cytologist; histologist laboratory technician; clinical administrator; chief laboratory clerical technologist; worker pathologist EKG technician cardiovascular [required for cardiologist technologist admittance into advanced degree programs] X-ray technician; CT scan technologist; diagnostic medical radiologist; radiation 17 radiology aide radiologic sonographer; oncologist technologist radiologic technologist chief ophthalmology aide optician [required for optometrist; admittance into ophthalmologist advanced degrees] ​ many tests in the clinical laboratory are very complicated and involve complex machines ○​ Pathologists ​ conduct laboratory tests to diagnose diseases in the patients of other doctors ​ perform or review tests on body tissues, secretions, and other specimens to see whether a disease is present and, if so, to determine its stage ○​ Clinical Laboratory Technologists ​ typically has a bachelor’s degree in a science discipline and has completed a yearlong internship in a healthcare facility ​ often supervises one of the departments in the clinical laboratory, and is responsible for all test results produced in her department ○​ Clinical Laboratory Technicians ​ generally requires two years of community college or a vocational program ​ Some states do not recognize this position ○​ Phlebotomists ​ trained to draw blood from a live person or animal for tests, transfusions, donations, or research ​ collect blood primarily by performing venipuncture, a surgical puncture in which blood is extracted from a vein, or by taking small quantities of blood from the finger ○​ Clinical Laboratory Aides ​ may clean laboratory equipment, prepare cleaning solutions, dry glassware, operate the autoclave, and prepare stains, solutions, and culture media ​ Vision Care ​ Half of the people in the US currently need some sort of vision care and 96% of people over the age of 65 have vision problems ​ Three categories of eyecare professionals ​ ophthalmologists 18  ​ optometrists ​ opticians ○​ Ophthalmologists ​ licensed to diagnose, write prescriptions for, and treat all eye problems ○​ Optometrists ​ complete four years of graduate education at a college of optometry ​ Receive a doctor of optometry (OD) degree and are able to examine patients for eye problems and fit patients for eyeglasses and contact lenses ○​ Opticians ​ Fit and dispense glasses and contact lenses ​ Radiology Workers ​ X-ray departments are also called diagnostic imaging departments ​ Radiology employees operate X-ray equipment to take pictures of internal parts of the body ​ X-rays can be used to diagnose lung diseases, as well as blood clots, ulcers, and fractures ​ exposure to radiation can cause cell damage ​ Radiation badges called dosimeters monitor radiation exposure over a period of time ​ Employees working with radiation must wear dosimeters at all times to ensure that they are not being exposed to dangerous levels of radiation ○​ Radiologists ​ medical doctors who specialize in the use of diagnostic imaging to diagnose and treat disease ​ agents such as dyes are often administered to the body to help radiologists see imaging results more clearly ○​ Radiation Oncologists ​ doctors who specialize in cancer treatment using radiation ​ Determines a tumor treatment plan for each patient ​ Beams of radiation can be directed at cancerous cells or tumors to destroy or inhibit the cancer cells’ ability to grow ○​ Other Radiology Careers ​ Radiation therapists deliver radiation to patients with cancer and other diseases ​ Nuclear medicine technologists prepare and administer radioactive drugs to patients undergoing scans; the radioactive drugs help identify abnormal areas of the body in images 19  ​ Diagnostic medical sonographers use sound waves to generate images used for assessing and diagnosing various medical conditions ​ Magnetic resonance imaging technologists operate MRI machines ​ Radiologic technologists perform diagnostic imaging procedures, such as X-ray examinations, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, and computed tomography (CT) scans HEALTH INFORMATICS SERVICES ​ involve the study of resources and methods for the management of health information ​ Health informatics technology includes the electronics and information technology used during the course of patient care ​ serves as a bride between the worlds of medicine and technology ​ Careers in Health Informatics health unit coordinator, medical records one or more years in a career or technical clerk education program; some on-the-job training opportunities health information file clerk high school diploma, industry certification, on-the-job training health information managements clerk high school diploma or industry certification registered health information technician associate’s degree (RHIT) registered health information administrator bachelor’s degree (RHIA) human resources assistant high school diploma, industry certification, on-the-job training human resources technician associate’s degree human resources manager bachelor’s degree human resources generalist master’s degree or professional degree medical clerical worker high school diploma, industry certification, on-the-job training medical office manager, medical records and associate’s degree health information technician hospital admitting officer bachelor’s degree medical librarian master’s degree in library science, certification or 20  licensure required in most states medical illustrator bachelor’s degree or master’s degree, certification ​ According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, employment in health information careers is expected to increase by 20 percent over the next few years ​ Applicants for jobs in this area usually have at least an associate’s degree. Career titles include the following: ​ certified health informatics specialist ​ chief information officer ​ clinical informaticist ​ informatics consultant ​ medical and health services manager ​ medical informatics specialist ​ nursing information officer ​ Medical Clerical Workers ​ these workers handle complaints, interpret and explain policies, prepare payrolls, resolve problems with billing, and collect overdue accounts ​ Some positions: ​ appointment scheduler ​ bill collector ​ claim representative ​ data processor ​ insurance processor ​ material or purchasing clerk ​ payroll or timekeeping clerk ​ personnel clerk ​ medical receptionist ​ administrative medical assistant ​ ensure that the everyday operations of healthcare organizations run smoothly and efficiently, while working to provide excellent customer service ​ Health Information Specialists ​ detailed records are kept every time a patient receives care or interacts with a healthcare professional ​ Prescriptions, treatment plans, test results, diagnoses, the patient’s medical history, and the description of symptoms are included 21  ​ EHRs are being used more commonly ​ The health information specialist’s career ladder includes: ​ health information clerks, who have completed a vocational education program ​ registered health information technicians (RHIT), who have graduated from a program accredited by the Commission of Accreditation for Health Informatics and Information Management of Education (CAHIIM) and have passed a national certification exam ​ registered health information administrators (RHIA), who have attained a bachelor’s degree, received a passing grade on a certification examination given by the American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA), and usually act in a supervisory or consulting capacity ​ Diagnostic Coding Specialists ​ use several hundred diagnostic-related groups, known as DRGs, to maintain electronic health records ​ DRGs group patients patients by groups ​ Coding specialists are known as health information coders, medical record coders or coders/abstractors ​ Health Unit Coordinators ​ HUC, also referred to as the unit secretary or unit clerk ​ usually stationed at the desk on a nursing unit, coordinates activities on the unit and handles telephone calls ​ a HUC helps to keep the facility organizes and coordinates communication between patients and medical staff ​ often completes a vocational education program for a unit secretary or health unit coordinator SUPPORT SERVICES ​ focuses on such functions as safety, sanitation, equipment, maintenance, counseling services, marketing, and food preparation ​ include housekeepers, central services workers, food service workers, grounds and building maintenance workers, and biomedical technicians support services aide, support high school diploma; industry certification; or on-the-job services attendant, support training services crew leader 22 support services technician associate’s degree director of support services bachelor’s degree director of support services and master’s degree or professional degree central services central services worker high school diploma central services technician associate’s degree central services supervisor or bachelor’s degree coordinator food service worker high school diploma; industry certification; or on-the-job training dietetic technician associate’s degree dietetic intern, registered bachelor’s degree dietitian administrative dietitian master’s degree or professional degree biomedical technician aide high school diploma; industry certification; or on-the-job training biomedical equipment technician associate’s degree (BMET) health technology manager bachelor’s degree (HTM), biomedical technologist rehabilitation counselor, mental master’s degree or professional degree health counselor, substance abuse counselor, or behavioral disorders counselor central or sterile supply one or more years in a career or technical education technician program; some on-the-job training opportunities; certification for a sterile processing technician ​ Housekeeping Services ​ responsible for the cleanliness of the healthcare environment ​ prevent the spread of infection, creating a more pleasant, safe environment ​ Requires specialized training and compliance with various local laws and regulations ​ Food Services ​ responsible for providing patients with safe, nutritional meals 23  ​ food service workers plan special diets such as low-sodium, low-fat, and restricted carbohydrate meals ​ bring menus to patients, prepare food trays, and deliver food to the patients ​ Dietitians ​ have degrees in nutrition, dietetics, public health, or a related field from accredited colleges and universities ​ registered dietitians have successfully completed internships and passed an examination for their credentials ​ dietitians work with patients newly diagnosed with a disorder that requires a special diet ​ Central Services ​ keep an inventory of supplies and equipment for the facility in which they work ​ supplies and equipment must be properly packaged, cleaned, and sterilized ​ play a key role in making sure patients are not exposed to infectious diseases and ensuring that doctors and nurses have proper, sterile equipment with which they can perform various procedures ​ Biomedical Equipment Technicians ​ is responsible for medical equipment maintenance ​ referred to as a biomedical electronics technician or biomedical engineering technician ​ maintains, installs, and repairs a wide variety of healthcare technology and equipment ​ trains health facility staff to ensure they understand how to properly operate biomedical equipment ​ required to earn an associate’s degree or a bachelor’s degree in a related field, such as electronic technology ​ some employers may only require a highschool diploma BIOTECHNOLOGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ​ includes jobs that are highly scientific ​ biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to create and develop products ​ some ways biotechnology has been used include producing new drugs, manufacturing medical devices, and developing diagnostic tests ​ the science of biotechnology also works on discoveries in other fields 24  ​ many employees have a strong research background in biology and chemistry ​ usually work in laboratories instead of healthcare facilities ​ requires excellent communication skills biological scientist bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree in a science discipline with licensure required in some states chemical technician associate’s and bachelor’s degree in a science discipline, depending on the state microbiologist bachelor’s degree in microbiology or closely related field; graduate degree to carry out independent research biological technician associate’s degree, but often requires bachelor’s degree laboratory assistant on-the-job training; associate’s degree in biological science laboratory technician associate’s degree in biological science biotechnological engineer bachelor’s degree in bioengineering; master’s degree and advanced degree also available ​ Biological Scientists ​ studies living organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, and other organisms that can cause infection ​ may assist in the development of vaccines, medicines, and treatments for disease ​ work on researching genes associated with specific diseases ​ requires a strong background in science and love of scientific inquiry ​ Microbiologists ​ a degree in microbiology or a related field is required ​ should be able to effectively communicate their research progress and findings ​ excellent organizational and writing skills are important ​ attention to detail is crucial ​ Bioengineers ​ have an engineering background ​ typically have a bachelor’s degree in biotechnology ​ strive to improve existing medical devices such as pacemakers or defibrillators ​ develop brand new medical devices 25  ​ may design or construct artificial organs ​ Biological and Chemical Technicians ​ assists biological scientists or bioengineers in the study of living organisms, helping to perform experiments ​ help in the development, testing, and manufacturing of medications ​ must have strong communication and writing skills ​ a chemical technician is also known as a process technician ​ Laboratory Assistants and Technicians ​ maintain the equipment used in a laboratory ​ laboratory assistants typically requires a high school diploma ​ laboratory technicians commonly have an associate’s degree ​ lab technicians analyze and graph data from experiments ​ may create new processes for developing new products CHAPTER 3: HEALTHCARE LAWS AND ETHICS MEDICAL ETHICS AND LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES ​ Medical ethics are concerned with whether a healthcare worker’s actions are right or wrong ​ Medical law focuses on whether a healthcare worker’s actions are legal or illegal ​ Illegal acts are always unethical ​ Unethical behavior may or may not be illegal ​ Medical Ethics in the Workplace ​ The oath written for doctors and attributed to Hippocrates implies that doctors should do no harm to their patients ​ Many healthcare organizations have a code of ethics for doctors and other healthcare providers to follow ​ Ethical Behavior ​ Ethical behavior represents ideal conduct for a certain group ​ Medical ethics in the healthcare setting are established as a framework for describing ideal behavior for employees ​ Licensed healthcare professionals adopt a specific code of ethics when they become licensed ​ All healthcare workers are to comply with codes of ethics ​ Ethics Committees in Healthcare Facilities ​ Ethics committees consider ethical problems that affect the care and treatment of the facility's patients ​ Members include healthcare providers, consumers, and members of the clergy 26  ​ Ethical behavior: ​ be well groomed ​ respect the privacy of others ​ be aware of your limitations ​ avoid taking on tasks for which you are not trained ​ be honest and trustworthy as you perform your job ​ Unethical behavior: ​ displaying rude behavior ​ being impatient ​ arriving at work with dirty clothing and hair ​ gossiping ​ lying ​ discuss salaries ​ Values ​ Values are the concepts, ideas, and beliefs that are important to a person ​ Values can be influenced by those around you ​ help make decisions ​ values and behaviors are reflections of ethics MEDICAL LAW ​ Governs the legal conduct of members of the medical profession ​ Includes laws to be followed at the federal, state, and local levels ​ Breaking such laws leads to civil or criminal prosecution ​ Civil law (tort law) refers to any laws that enforce private rights, not criminal behavior ​ Criminal law deals with criminal behavior ​ Breaking a medical law can lead to loss of a professional license, a fine, or prison LEGAL PROTECTION FOR PATIENTS AND HEALTHCARE WORKERS ​ When a patient and doctor form a relationship, their relationship is considered a contract ​ Invasion of Privacy ​ Two types: ​ Physical ○​ Someone who does not protect the modesty of a patient ​ Informational ○​ when someone’s personal information is revealed without patient consent ​ Patient’s Bill of Rights 27  ​ A list of guarantees for those receiving medical care ​ May take the form of a law or a nonbinding declaration ​ Guarantees patients access to health services, information, fair treatment ​ The Affordable Care Act of 2010 includes the patient rights that are now law ​ Ombudsman ​ An ombudsman ensures that patients are not abused and their legal rights are protected ​ may be a nurse, trained volunteer, social worker ​ The Patient Self-Determination Act ​ passed by Congress in 1990 ​ Requires that most healthcare institutions inform patients about their rights at the time of admission ​ Inclues: ​ participate in and direct their healthcare decisions ​ accept or refuse medical or surgical treatment ​ prepare an advance directive ​ view information on the facility’s policies about recognizing advance directives ​ know how the facility educates its staff regarding advance directives ​ Advance Directives (AD) ​ A legal document in which a patient gives written instructions about healthcare decisions to be used in the event that he becomes incapable of making such decisions in the future ​ DNR document is made by a patient as part of an advance directive ​ states that CPR or ACLS should not be performed ​ Durable Power of Attorney ​ A legal document that grants another person the authority to make legal decisions for you ​ DPAHC allows the patient to express her healthcare decisions and outline how much authority the person should be given ​ Guardianship ​ If a patient is not able to make his or her own decisions due to mental or physical incapacity, a court-appointed guardian may make decisions to protect the interests of the patient ​ Emancipated minors ​ A person under 18 years of age who has legally established that he does not live with his parents 28  ​ Financially and legally responsible for himself ​ Duty of Care ​ Every patient is entitled to self care ​ duty of care is a legal obligation for healthcare personnel to take reasonable care of a patient to avoid causing harm ​ A charge of negligence may be made if duty is not met ​ Negligence ​ Negligence refers to performing an act that a reasonable person would have not done ​ Negligence can also mean failing to do something that a reasonable person would have done, resulting in injury or harm ​ Good Samaritan Laws ​ Designed to protect people from legal action after they have given free emergency medical aid while using reasonable care ​ Designed to encourage healthcare professionals to give first aid without fear of being sued ​ Reasonable Care ​ Legal protection for healthcare workers ​ Protection applies if it can be proven that the worker acted reasonably ​ Arbitration ​ A method of resolving disputes outside the courtroom ​ does not involve a trial ​ Medical Malpractice ​ also known as professional liability ​ defined as any misconduct or lack of skill that results in patient injury ​ Assault and Battery ​ When a person’s words or actions make another person fear that he or she may be harmed, that is assault ​ Battery refers to touching a person without permission ​ Both are considered crimes ​ Defamation ​ The act of damaging someone’s good name or reputation ​ Verbal- slander ​ writing-libel ​ Abuse ​ Any action that results in physical or mental harm ​ Physical abuse: hitting, depriving someone of food and water, restraining a patient when it is not necessary, or refusing to administer physical care 29  ​ Psychological abuse: threats, intimidation, or making fun of someone in a cruel matter ​ Verbal abuse: swearing, speaking harshly, and name calling ​ Sexual abuse: sexual touching and acts, using sexual gestures, or suggesting sexual behavior ​ Domestic abuse occurs when one partner in an intimate relationship such as a marriage abuses the other ​ Physical signs of abuse include fractures, burns, serious bruising or other injuries ​ an abuse victim may have irrational fears, display aggressive or withdrawn behavior, or be hesitant to explain what happen ​ Standard of Care ​ refers to the skill and care that healthcare providers such as doctors, nurses, medical assistants, and phlebotomists must use as determined by their license or certification ​ Such practitioners must perform a procedure in the way that someone with similar qualifications would have performed in the same situation ​ Statute of Limitations ​ concerns the amount of time that can pass before any legal action is taken ​ Scope of Practice ​ includes all the skills she is trained for and allowed to use ​ is a legal concept ​ someone can be held legally responsible for not performing tasks within her scope of practice ​ Working outside of your scope of practice is illegal CONFIDENTIALITY ​ Allows only certain individuals the right to access personal information ​ Protects a patient’s personal information ensuring that others do not have access ​ Healthcare agencies must provide confidentiality and privacy of any health related information ​ HIPAA Privacy Protections ​ Passed in 1996 ​ Guarantees continuation of health insurance coverage if a person changes jobs ​ provided standards for health information transactions, as well as confidentiality and security of patient data 30  ​ Been enforced since April of 2003 ​ Establishes national standards to protect individuals’ medical records and other personal health information ​ Violation can result in civil penalties ranging from $100 to $25,000 EXCEPTIONS FOR RELEASING PATIENT INFORMATION ​ healthcare workers are both ethically and legally bound to protect the privacy and confidentiality of patient-doctor interactions ​ Doctors may share information only if required by laws ​ Breaches, or breaks, in confidentiality can result in lawsuits against the doctor, or facility ​ Patient’s medical record is a confidential, legal document that should not be discussed with anyone who does not have a need to know ​ Before information can be released for insurance purposes, patient must sign a release-of-information form PATIENT CONSENT FORM ​ When a doctor makes a diagnosis and recommends a specific treatment, the patient can decide whether or not to accept the diagnosis and method of treatment ​ The doctor must inform the patient or guardian, the risks, using easily understandable words ​ The benefits and risks must be explained ​ A consent form, called an informed consent, must be signed ​ All signatures must be ink ​ Patients cannot be forced RECOGNIZING REPORTABLE BEHAVIOR ​ Healthcare workers are responsible for helping to protect everyone in the workplace ​ A reportable incident is an event that can affect the health, safety, or welfare of those around you. Examples include: ​ an employee harassing another employee ​ an employee stealing medication ​ an employee making fun of a patient ​ evidence of misuse of hospital funds ​ a breach of confidentiality ​ a worker striking or otherwise harming a patient ​ an employee stealing property from the employer ​ an employee stealing property from a patient or a coworker 31 DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE ​ discrimination based on illness, age, weight, or a disability can also occur in the healthcare setting ​ discrimination of any kind is unacceptable CHAPTER 4: SAFETY AND INFECTION CONTROL SAFETY ​ Safety in Healthcare Facilities ○​ Safety Manuals ​ Every healthcare facility as policies regarding safety and should have written safety instructions readily available to all employees ○​ General Safety Rules ​ General Safety Rules: ​ Whenever possible, walk on the right-hand side of hallways and stairways. Avoid walking alongside more than two people. Leave hallways open so that there are no “traffic” problems ​ Always hold onto handrails when using stairs. ​ Never run in a hallway. Running can cause panic. ​ Report any lights that do not work in your facility. No one should be injured due to faulty lighting. Report faulty electrical sources, such as electrical cords, machinery, and power outlets ​ Cautiously open swinging doors ​ Remove obstructions from floors and hallways ​ Do not prop open fire safety doors ​ Wear sensible shoes ​ Make sure your uniform is neat and clean in appearance ​ Store items in a safe, yet easily accessible manner ​ Recognize and obey evacuation routes posted throughout the facility ​ Be aware of everyone around you ​ Practice safety in your daily life ○​ Hospital Emergency Codes ​ Used in hospitals to alert healthcare workers to various emergencies ​ Code Red - fire in the facility ​ Code Blue - cardiac arrest ​ Code Pink - Infant or Child Abduction ​ Code Orange - Hazardous Materials Spill ​ Code Silver - Dangerous person with a weapon 32  ​ Code Black - Bomb Threat ○​ Disaster Preparedness in the Healthcare Facility ​ A disaster is any sudden event that brings great damage, loss, or destruction ​ Patient Safety ○​ Universal Patient Safety Guidelines ​ Always identify the patient before you interact ​ Make sure your patient has privacy ​ When leaving, make sure the call button is in reach of the patient ​ Be sure that the patient knows the location of the bathroom, call buttons, emergency call lights, handrails, and safety rails ​ Explain the entire procedure and make sure you have the patient’s consent before a procedure ​ Never start or perform a procedure that you are not trained to perform ​ Immediately report safety hazards ​ Observe the patient carefully ​ Watch for signs of allergic reactions ​ Wash your hands ○​ Incident Reports ​ An incident is any event that is not part of the routine operation of the healthcare facility ​ Incident reports should be used to document both safety- and non-safety-related occurrences ​ Use a black pen to fill in an incident report ​ Do not use whiteout ​ Incident reports should require the following: ​ Date of incident ​ Names of persons involved ​ Location & time of incident ​ Person to whom the incident is reported ​ Brief description ​ Names of witnesses ​ Name of machine/piece of equipment involved ​ Action taken to prevent recurrence ​ Signature of the person filling out the report ○​ Patients’ Bill of Rights ​ Patients’ Bill of Rights are written to ensure that patients receive high-quality healthcare services, regards their safety 33 ​ Employee Safety ​ OSHA Hazard Communication Standard Ensures employees are educated about chemical hazards in the workplace ​ How to reduce risk of chemical injury: ​ Wear gloves, goggles (NO CONTACT LENSES), protective clothing ​ Do not use chemicals in unlabeled containers ​ Read chemical labels - double-check ​ Never mix unknown chemicals ​ Clean up all spills ​ Immediately flush the skin/eyes if in contact with chemicals; wash for 10 minutes ​ MSDS is a document containing information about a particular chemical used in a healthcare facility ​ MSDS (material safety data sheet) contains information about: ​ Chemical’s ○​ Dilution ○​ Makeup ○​ Mixture concentration ○​ Instructions for use ​ Possible hazards of using chemical ​ Appropriate first aid treatment in case of accident/spill ○​ Electrical Safety ​ Electrical shocks injuries result in moderate burns, severe skin damage, unconsciousness, or death ​ Do no overload electrical plugs/outlets; becomes a fire hazard ​ Minimize the use of extension cords ​ All medical equipments must have 3-prongs ​ When operating electrical equipment, ensure that hands, patient’s hands and the floor are dry ○​ Radiation safety ​ Degree of exposure depends on: ​ Amount of radiation ​ Duration of exposure ​ Distance from the source ​ Type of shielding ​ Radiation hazard symbol will alert you the presence of radiation ​ The acronym ALARA — stands for As Low As Reasonably Achievable ​ Duration of exposure ​ Distance from radiation 34  ​ Shielding devices used ○​ Fire Safety ​ Fire triangle — fuel, heat, & oxygen are present ​ Burn Degrees ​ First degree: skin is usually red and very painful; heals in 3-5 days ​ Second-degree: blisters present; wound will be pink or red; painful; appears to be wet; several weeks to heal ​ Third-degree: all layers of the skin are destroyed; extending into tissue; skin is black and white; dried up; takes months to heal; requires skin grafts (surgical transfer of healthy skin) ​ Types of Fire Extinguishers ​ Class A —pressurized water; ordinary combustibles (wood, paper, textiles) ​ Class B — carbon dioxide (CO2); flammable liquids (grease, gasoline, oils, paints) ​ Class C — dry chemical; electrical equipment (wiring, computers, other electrical devices) ​ Class D — dry chemical; combustible metals (magnesium, potassium, titanium, sodium) ​ Multi-purpose (A, B, C) — dry chemicals; labeled for use on ordinary combustibles, flammable liquids, and electrical equipment fires ​ Procedures: ​ Locate fire extinguishers and fire alarms ​ Keep areas uncluttered and free of debris ​ Evacuate ambulatory patients; wheelchair patients first, then bedridden patients ​ Do not prop open fire doors ​ Never use an elevator during a fire ​ Don’t evacuate unless instructed by an authority ​ Participate professionally during drills ​ RACE: ○​ Rescue: immediately stop and remove anyone in danger from the fire to a safer area ○​ Alarm: Activate the nearest fire alarm pull stations ○​ Contain: Close all doors & windows that you can safely reach to contain the fire; close doors behind you ○​ Extinguish: only attempt to extinguish the fire 35  ​ PASS: ​ Pull: pull the pin to break the tamper seal ​ Aim: aim low, pointing the extinguisher nozzle at the base of the fire (Warning: do not touch the plastic discharge horn on CO2 extinguisher; it’s cold and will damage your skin) ​ Squeeze: squeeze the handle to release the extinguishing agent ​ Sweep: sweep from side to side at the base of the fire until it appears to be out (Watch the area; if the fire reignites, repeat step 2 through 4 ○​ *Fire extinguishers only last about 30 seconds ○​ Body Mechanics ​ Body mechanics — the proper use of body movements to prevent injury during the performance of physical tasks, such as lifting and sitting ​ Ergonomics — the practice/science of maximizing efficiency and preventing discomfort/injury during the time a person is performing work tasks ○​ Sitting ​ Ensure buttocks are at the back of the chair ​ Back should be straight ​ Shoulders should not be hunched ​ Bend your knees at right angles and place them at the same height as/higher than your hips ​ Feet should be flat on the floor ​ Use of a footrest avoids posture problems ​ Height and back of the chair should be adjustable ​ Larger fonts help reduce eyestrain ​ Performing deep breathing exercises helps to reduce stress ​ RSI — Repetitive Strain Injuries ​ Relax periodically by standing and moving your body ​ If there are glares on your computer screen, change the lighting/position to eliminate it ​ Keep wrists as straight as possible ​ Support should have rounded edges and padding; should be 2 inches high 36  ​ Carpal tunnel syndrome — a painful, progressive hand and arm condition caused by compression of a key nerve in the wrist; can be caused when wrists are not supported during keyboard use ​ Fingers should be lower than the wrist ○​ Standing ​ Shoulder blades should be back ​ Chest forward ​ Knees straight ​ Top of you head should align with the ceiling ​ Pelvis should not tilt ​ Arches of your feet should be supported by your shoes ○​ Reaching ​ Stand directly in front of it when reaching for an object ​ Avoid twisting or stretching ​ Use a stool/ladder for high objects ​ Do not try to move the object if it is too heavy/large ○​ Lifting ​ Upright position ​ Back straight at all times ​ Leg muscles should do most of the lifting work ​ Think before you lift — how will you lift the object, plan your path, ensure it is clear of any equipment or hazards ​ Test the weight — assess the weight, ensure you can lift the item safely; if not, get help or use an assistive device ​ Bend at the hips and knees — lower back upright, the forces are distributed safely ​ Maintain a wide base of support — solid and wide base will help reduce the possibility of slipping while lifting ​ Hold objects as close to you as possible ​ Do not twist when carrying —move or change directions with your feet; decreases the stress and load on the back ​ Tighten abdominal muscles when lifting ​ Lift with your legs ​ When lifting a patient, communicate with her/him to let the know what you are doing ​ Lower your body down to meeting the object you are trying to pick up ​ Lift straight up in one smooth motion ​ Maintain good communication if two or more people are lifting — ensures good timing when lifting 37  ​ Push rather than pull — Easier to use your weight advantage when pushing ​ Eliminate repetitive lifting duties if possible ​ When in doubt, get help ​ Quality Improvement & Safety ​ QI (quality improvement) — term for policies that motivate/require healthcare facilities to monitor and evaluate their services based on predetermined criteria for the purpose of improving those services ​ Avoids blames and creates systems to prevent errors ​ Examples: ​ The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ​ The National Institutes of Health (NIH) ​ The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid ​ The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) ​ The Joint Commission (TJC) ​ The Institute of Medicine (IOM) ​ The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) ​ The World Health Organization (WHO) ​ The National Quality Forum (NQF) INFECTION CONTROL ​ Introduction to Microorganisms ​ Bacteria — small, one-celled microorganisms that cannot be seen by the naked eye; can be pathogenic (cause diseases) ​ Viruses — pathogenic microorganisms, much smaller than bacteria, that depend on a living cell to survive; cause many serious diseases and illnesses ​ Fungi — parasitic organisms that live in the soil or on plants; include disease-causing microorganisms such as yeasts and molds ​ Protozoa — microorganisms that depend on a host cell to survive and replicate; can cause serious illnesses ​ nonpathogenic microorganisms (such as bacteria in intestines) maintain a balance in the environment and in our bodies ​ Contributes to good health by helping break down waste and nutrients ​ Aerobe — an organism that requires oxygen to live ​ Anaerobe — an organism that requires little or no oxygen to live ○​ Bacteria ​ Morphology — the science or study of the form and structure of organisms 38  ​ Clinical microbiologist identifies the actual family of the bacteria through testing ​ Bacteria: ​ Coccus — spherical ​ Bacilli — rod-like shapes ​ Spirochetes — twisted cylinders ​ Staphylococcus — spherically-shaped cocci arranged in clusters ​ Streptococcus — cocci forming chains ​ Diplococcus — cocci in pairs ​ Hospital stays can be prolonged by the bacterium (Staphylococcus aureus) — staph infections ​ The Black Death killed approximately 25 million people — caused by rod-shaped bacterium (yersinia pestis) ​ Syphilis is a bacterial infection caused by spiral bacterium called a spirochete ○​ Viruses ​ Cannot reproduce on their own; depend on a living cell ​ Antibiotics cannot kill viruses ​ Causes ​ Common cold ​ Smallpox ​ Chickenpox ​ Measles ​ Influenza ​ Human papillomavirus (HPV) ​ Herpes simplex ​ AIDS ○​ Fungi ​ Yeasts and molds ​ Causes diseases, especially if the immune system has already been compromised by a different disease/disorder ​ Examples of fungal infection ​ Athlete’s foot ​ thrush (an infection of the mouth/throat) ​ Vaginitis ​ Lung diseases (pneumonia) ​ Treated with topical, oral, injectable medications ○​ Protozoa ​ Found in water or soil 39  ​ Causes ​ amoebic dysentery — inflammation of the colon; results in fever, abdominal pain, severe diarrhea ​ Amoebiasis ​ Trichomoniasis ​ Malaria — a disease contracted by a mosquito bite ○​ Protozoan lives in red blood cells ​ Treated with oral & injectable antiprotozoal medications ○​ Rickettsiae ​ Rickettsiae — parasites that normally choose fleas, lice, ticks, or mites as their host organisms; can cause severe infections ​ Parasites — organisms that live in or on another organism ​ Causes ​ Rocky Mountain spotted fever ○​ Causes epidemics ​ Types of typhus ○​ Causes epidemics ​ Treated with appropriate antibiotics ○​ Superbugs ​ Some bacteria that have become resistant to antibiotics: ​ Mycobacterium tuberculosis ​ Streptococcus ​ Klebsiella ​ Acinetobacter ​ Pseudomonas ​ Clostridium difficile ​ vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus ​ Enterobacter ​ Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ○​ Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) — an antibiotic-resistant bacterium responsible for a difficult-to-treat infection; sometimes prevalent in hospitals, prisons, schools, nursing homes ​ The Chain of Infection ​ Chain of Infection — the sequence of events that allows infection to move from one source or host to another ​ Nosocomial infections — hospital-acquired infections; aka healthcare-associated infections ​ Cause 40  ○​ Pneumonia ○​ Infections of the bloodstream ○​ Urinary tract ​ Th