Handouts.docx

EDUC 70:    ### The following are used in the practice of metacognition: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. - If one is only aware about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and t...

EDUC 70:    ### The following are used in the practice of metacognition: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. - If one is only aware about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of the task but does not use this to guide his own learning, then NO metacognition has been applied. ### Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning - - - the learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about what he will soon learn - - - - - look for outlines or advance organizers that will give you an idea about the important topics and ideas -  ### Introduction Intended Learning Outcome (ILO) -------------------------------------------------- *Analyze learner-centered theories of learning.* LEARNING POINT: THE NATURE OF LEARNING -------------------------------------- - Learning is generally defined as any change in the behavior of the learner, the change can be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or incorrect and conscious or unconscious (Mayer, 2011; and Schunk, 2012 in Woolfolk, 2013). - Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one\'s knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behavior and world views (\"Education, n. d.). - Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior with behavior including both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking, attitudes, and emotions. - Santrock (2012, p. 217) defined learning as a relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills that comes about through experience. a. b. c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental illness fatigue, hunger or the like. d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its basis in the brain. - Woolfolk (2016) asserts that \"learning occurs when experience (including practice) causes a relatively permanent change in an individual\'s knowledge, behavior or potential for behavior. - For Ormrod (2015), \"Learning is a long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience. - Learning is also defined as \"any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice and experience." a. b. c. ### Types of Learning a. **Motor Learning.** It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go through daily life activities as for example, walking, running, driving, and the like. These activities involve motor coordination b. **Verbal Learning.** It involves the use of spoken language as well as the communication devices used. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds are tools used in such activities. c. **Concept Learning.** A form of learning which requires the use of higher-order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, and analyzing. It involves two processes: abstraction and generalization. d. **Discrimination Learning.** It is learning to differentiate between stimuli and responding appropriately to cheese stimuli. An example is being able to distinguish the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus, car, and ambulance e. **Learning of Principles.** It is learning principles related to science, mathematics, grammar and the like Principles show the relationship between two or more concepts, some examples of which are formulas, laws associations, correlations, and the like. f. **Problem Solving.** This is a higher-order thinking process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities such as thinking, reasoning observation, imagination, and generalization. g. **Attitude Learning.** Attitude is a predisposition which determines and predicts behavior learned attitudes influence one\'s behavior toward people, objects, things or ideas (\"Learning: Meaning. Nature, Types and Theories of Learning n. d.) LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF THEORIES OF LEARNING ---------------------------------------------- LEARNING POINT: DEFINING "LEARNER-CENTERED" ------------------------------------------- a. b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of the learner. c. They deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal factors. d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in isolation. e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, affective, developmental, social, and individual difference factors related to learning. f. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the educational system. ### Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors 1. **Nature of the Learning Process.** Learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience. 2. **Goals of the Learning Process.** The successful learner, over time, with support and guidance can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. 3. **Construction of Knowledge.** The learner can relate new information in meaningful ways. 4. **Strategic Thinking.** The learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex goals. 5. **Thinking About Thinking.** Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilities creative and critical thinking. 6. **Context of Learning.** Learning is influenced by environmental factors including culture, technology, and instructional practices. ### Motivational and Affective Factors 7. **Motivational and Emotional Influences in Learning.** What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner's level of motivation. Motivation to learn is in turn influenced by the learner's emotional states, beliefs, interests, goals and habits of thinking. 8. **Intrinsic Motivation to Learn.** Learning is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interest, and providing for personal choice and control. 9. **Effects of Motivation on Effort.** Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort guided practice. Without this motivation willingness to exert effort is unlikely, unless coerced. ### Development and Social Factors 10. **Influences on Learning.** As individuals develop, they encounter different opportunities and experiences, as well as constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account. 11. **Social Influences on Learning.** Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others. ### Individual Difference Factors 12. **Individual Difference in Learning.** Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. 13. **Learning and Diversity.** Learning is most effective differences in learner's linguistic, social, and cultural backgrounds are taken into account. 14. **Standards and Assessment.** Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner and learning progress -- including diagnostic and outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning process. - Santrock (2011) identifies some learner-centered instructional strategies which address learner's needs. They are: ### Problem-Based Learning ### Essentials Question ### Discovery Learning LEARNING POINT: THEORIES OF LEARNING ------------------------------------ ### Pavlov also had the following findings: - **Stimulus Generalization.** Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds. - **Extinction.** If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cause in response to the bell. - **Spontaneous Recovery.** Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with the food. - **Discrimination.** The dog could learn to discriminated between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not. - **Higher-Order Conditioning.** Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell. ### Thorndike's theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws. ### Principles Derived from Thorndike\'s Connectionism: 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps. 2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback. 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a positive reinforcement. 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades. 1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective. 2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (\"shaping\"). 3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (\"stimulus generalization\") producing secondary conditioning. KEYPOINTS ON BEHAVIORISM ------------------------ - Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. - This perspective emerged in the early 1900s through the research efforts of **Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike** who made more objective studies about learning as opposed to the studies on learning which relied heavily on introspection. - The learner stars off with a clean slate (i.e., tabula rasa) and behavior is learned or shaped through positive reinforcement. - Behaviorism is a world view that operates on the principle of "stimulus- response" (S-R). - Learning is promoted by environmental factors like reinforcement, feedback, practice or repetition ("Behaviorism," n. d.). - Following are the basic assumptions of behaviorism, which many behaviorists share (Ormrod, 2015, pp.52-53). a. Principles of learnings should apply equally to different behaviors and to a variety of animal species. b. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on the stimuli and responses. c. d. e. f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events. g. - The areas of application of theories under behaviorism are listed below: (Ormrod, 2015 and Kelly, September, 2012) a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. ### Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism ### Tolman\'s Key Concepts ### Albert Bandura\'s Social Learning Theory ### General principles of social learning theory 1. People can **learn by observing** the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors. 2. Learning can occur **without a change** in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behaves, in contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through **observation alone**, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change. 3. Cognition plays a **role** in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning theory has become **increasingly cognitive** in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit. 4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a **transition** between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories. ### How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling 1. The observer is reinforced **by the model**. For example, a student who changes dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group. 2. The observer is reinforced by a **third person**. The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior. 3. The imitated **behavior itself leads** to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn from others **produce satisfying** or reinforcing results. For example, a student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the same extra work and also experience enjoyment. 4. Consequences of the model\'s behavior affect the observer\'s behavior **vicariously**. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the **model is reinforced** for a response and then the **observer shows an increase** in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model **hitting** an **inflated clown doll**. One group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the doll. ### Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment 1. 2. 3. ### Cognitive factors in social learning 1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning through **observation** and the actual **imitation** of what has been learned. This is similar to Tolman\'s latent learning. 2. 3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations **about the consequences** that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner needs to **be aware**, however, of the response reinforcements and response punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of that connection. 4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and the person. In fact, each of these **three variables**, the person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each other. 5. Modeling: There are different **types** of models. There is the **live model**, an actual person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a **symbolic model**, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs. ### Behaviors that can be learned through modeling ### Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur 1. 2. 3. 4. ### Effects of modeling on behavior: 1. 2. 3. 4. ### Educational implications of social learning theory 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ### Gestalt Principles ### Insight Learning ### Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process  ### Intellectual Skills ### Cognitive Strategies ### Verbal Information ### Motor Skills ### Attitude #### Nine Events of Instruction 1. **Gaining attention**- do something that peaks the learner\'s interest i.e. simulation, comedy, video, open discussion about a topic, case studies (University of Florida, Center for Instructional Technology and Training, 2014). Provide shocking pictures of an infected IV site from not properly cleaning or assessing site (Thomas, 2012). 2. **Informing the learner of the objectives**- discuss, either verbally or through documentation: what will be taught (Alutu, 2006), what will the learner take away from the lesson and/or how can they can transfer their new knowledge to existing knowledge (University of Florida, Center for Instructional Technology and Training, 2014). 3. **Stimulating recall of prerequisite learning**- ask higher learning question to engage information recall i.e. pretests (Specht, 2008). 4. **Presenting the stimulus**- teach the lesson and emphasize important topics for learning; utilize teaching tools like YouTube, Podcasts, etc (University of Florida, Center for Instructional Technology and Training, 2014) to provide example of IV insertion. 5. **Providing learner guidance**- allow students time to practice (Specht, 2008), ask higher learner questions to engage in critical thinking and information recall, be present during simulation or role playing for guidance and assistance (Thomas, 2012). 6. **Eliciting the performance**- have the learner to perform task or verbally recite the task that was taught (Specht, 2008). 7. **Providing performance feedback**- debrief the learner and let him/her know how they did correctly or incorrectly (University of Florida, Center for Instructional Technology and Training, 2014), provide constructive criticism, support learner to make suggestions for improvement, incorporate reflection or collaborative thinking and encourage application to new situations. 8. **Assess performance**- evaluate learner on what they learned and what was taught; activate retrieval (Alutu, 2006). 9. KEY POINTS ON COGNITIVISM ------------------------- - The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s replaced behaviorism as the dominant paradigm for learning. - The human mind is seen as a "black box" and it is necessary to open it for a better understanding of how people learn. - Mental processes such as memory, knowing, problem-solving reasoning and other such processes need to be explored. - Cognitivism requires active participation in order to learn and actions are seen as a result of thinking. - - Learning is thought of as an internal process rather than simply dealing with or responding to external stimuli. - Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by attaining new insights or changing old ones. - Thus, learning is a change in knowledge which is stored in memory and not just a change in behavior (Kelly, September 2012). - Example and application of the cognitive learning theory (Kelly, September 2012). a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. 1. **Learners construct understanding.** As discussed earlier, constructivists do not view learners as just empty vessels waiting to be filled up. They see learners as active thinkers who interpret new information based on what they already know. They construct knowledge in a way that makes sense to them. 2. **New learning depends on current understanding.** Background information is very important. It is through the present views or scheme that the learner has that new information will be interpreted. 3. **Learning is facilitated by social interaction.** Constructivists believe in creating a \"community of learners\" within classrooms. Learning communities help learners take responsibility for their own learning. Learners have a lot of opportunities to cooperate and collaborate to solve problems and discover things. Teachers play the role of a facilitator rather than an expert who has all the knowledge. 4. **Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks.** An authentic task is one that involves a learning activity that involves constructing knowledge and understanding that is so akin to the knowledge and understanding needed when applied in the real world. Example, a writing activity where six-year-old prepare a checklist of things they need to do in school is a more an authentic activity than for them to be working only on tracing worksheets with dotted lines. KEY POINTS ON CONSTRUCTIVISM ---------------------------- - As a worldwide or paradigm that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, it posits the learning is an active constructive process. The learner himself constructs knowledge. - People actively construct or create their own representation of objectives reality. - Learning is seen as an active contextualized process of constructing knowledge instead of simply acquiring it. - The theory is about preparing the individual to solve problems. Thus, the individual needs to have a wide and significant base of knowledge upon which to create and interpret ideas. - Following are some application of social constructivism (Kelly, September 2012) a. b. c. d. e. f. Discovery Learning g. - The application of social constructivism show that class activities which require the participation and contributions of many learners in a task enables learning to occur. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1. ### Social Learning Theory - This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura who works with both cognitive and behaviorist frameworks that embrace attention, memory, and motivation. - This theory suggest that people learn within a social context and that learning is facilitated through concepts like modeling, observational learning, and imitation. - The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well- established. a. b. Describing consequences of behavior can effectively increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. c. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. It can provide a faster, more efficient means of teaching new behavior. d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care not to model inappropriate behaviors. e. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models to break down traditional stereotypes. 2. ### Socio-constructivism - In the late 20th century, the constructive view of learning was further changed by the perspective of "situated cognition and learning." - It emphasized the significant role of context particularly social interaction is learning - Criticism against the information-processing between constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger as the pioneer work of Leo Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic research by scholars like Barbara Rogoff and Jean Lave came to the fore and gathered support. - In the new view, cognition and learning are understood as interaction between the individual and a situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is formed and utilized. - This gave way to the new metaphor, for learning as "participation and social negotiation." a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in group work or cooperative learning. b. In group or cooperative work, should makes sure that each learner is able to make his contribution to accomplish the task. c. The topics or subject matter should contain local instructional materials which are familiar to the learners. This is for more meaningful learning. d. Local resources should be used as jump off point for group discussions, and problem-solving tasks. 3. ### Experiential Learning - - - a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences of the learners, which could serve as inputs for related lessons. b. Teachers should make sure that they have a feel of the experiences of the students. c. Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate and guide students' learning. 4. ### Multiple Intelligence (MI) - This theory challenges the assumptions in many learning theories that learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience according to the same principles. - Howard Gardner's theory of intelligence challenges the understanding that intelligence is dominated by a single general ability. - He argues that intelligence actually consist of many distinct intelligences: logico-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily- kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal ability, and naturalistic ability. 5. ### Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice - - - Situated learning recognizes that there is no learning that is not situated. - It emphasized the relational and negotiated character if knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved. - Interactions taking place within a community of practice, i.e. cooperation, problem solving building trust, understanding and relations- have the potential to foster community social capital that enhance the community members' well-being a. b. *Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values, beliefs, language and ways of doing things.* c. *The process of learning and membership in a community of practice are inseparable.* d. e. *Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a community creates the potential for learning.* 6. ### 21^st^ Century Learning Skills - The study of exploration of 21st century learning or skills emerged from the concerns about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st century characterized as knowledge and technology-driven. - These are skills necessary for students to master for them to experience schools and life success in increasingly digital and