Summary

This study guide covers various topics in global studies. It includes information about agrarian and hunter-gatherer societies, trade networks, and ancient civilizations.  Information is also provided on the development of social structures and trade.

Full Transcript

UNIT 1: AGRARIAN AND HUNTER-GATHERER SOCIETIES Hunting, foraging, caring for animals, growing food Storing and preserving food Women take care of their children, but equality ‘ Homes were the same size, and graves’ objects were of relatively equal value Excavation Tripo...

UNIT 1: AGRARIAN AND HUNTER-GATHERER SOCIETIES Hunting, foraging, caring for animals, growing food Storing and preserving food Women take care of their children, but equality ‘ Homes were the same size, and graves’ objects were of relatively equal value Excavation Tripoyle culture in modern-day Ukraine Catalhuyuk in modern-day Turkey Human bones (size) show that they have similar diets Hunter-gatherer ancestors Different lives from foraging communities Live in closer quarters, disease spreads faster More fear of disease influences many spiritual beliefs and practices Women were regarded as the symbol of fertility (goddess figures of Catalhuyuk depict feminine deities) Women's inequality tended to intensify Prefer men who make an effort full-time and women to stay fed Food surplus -> Women stay home Trade network Between farmers, nomadic foraging communities, other farming communities) 1) Trade obsidian in Turkey and many islands in Oceania ex) Lapita culture used obsidian artifacts ceramics, marshalls, and plants) 2) Trade fish, mollusk, and shells in inland villages. Cultivated llama, corn, textiles, potato, quinoa, cattle in coastal villages in the Norte Chico (Peru) Bridges, irrigation, and drainage systems Surpluses 있어서 made pottery, wove baskets and cloth, worked with leather and wood Labor Coordinated by administers and leaders More social hierarchies with more defined notions of property, class, and caste Archaeological evidence 1) Graves with gold and jewelry implies private wealth 2) Gender roles with male heads gaining control over wealth 3) Strategic marriage alliances 4) Trade (hub nearby places grow faster), controlled strategic crossings UNIT 2: Afro-Eurasian trade and Mesoamerican trade Afro-Eurasia trade network (Africa, Europe, Asia) Oceans, deserts, and mountains act as a relay system for goods 80-90% of the human population was located Expansive plains, navigable rivers, mountain ranges Use animals to carry over long distances (horses, cattle, elephants, Bactrian camels) Transportation in Afro-Eurasian trade network Two-humped camels - Ship of desert, heavy loads through bitterly cold winters and blazing deserts Expanded actual ships in the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean, so maritime trade developed Silk Road -> from Egypt to China (overland) Goods China - Silk Vastness of Asia to the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean India - Cotton, spices(nutmeg and pepper) Arabia - Frankincense and spices (cinnamon and cloves) Nubia and Upper Nile - Iron Greek and Rome - Wine and glassware (coveted by the Chinese) Coast of East Africa - Ivory and gold Egypt - Grain Central Asia - Lapis Lazuli Effect New metalworking technology - Iron became valuable (기술도 이 루트로 퍼짐) Enslaved people were bought and sold. Pastoralist에 따라 trade good도 depend ex) Scythians and Xiongu Excavation Standard of Ur - Blue rock from lapis lazuli in Bactria, White shells from Persian Gulf, and red stone from India The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea - First Sailing guide written in Greek (describes how merchants should sail bw ports in the Indian Ocean) The Mesoamerican Network Western hemisphere (Mexico and Central America) No sailing technology (their rivers are not good for transportation) DIdn’t have pack animals. (some in the Caribbean Sea and on the Pacific coast used sea-based trade) Transportation Used huge canoes and mainly done on foot Large Urban Center The Olmec and Zapotec people - built major cities Maya cities in the Yucatan Peninsula Teotihuacan in the north (plateau of Mexico) -> grew most important center of trade in Mesoamerica (100,000 inhabitants) Trade Obsidian Instead of metal, used obsidian mines for weapons and tools. Jade Used in religious rituals Mayan merchants Cacao, salit, jade, and quetzal feathers up and down the coast of the Yucatan peninsula Zapotec merchants on the Pacific coast Cotton clothes and pottery Guatemala Jade and obsidian with their neighbors to the North Summary Majority of items traded along -> transport easy and make a large profits ex) jade, silk, spices, porcelain, feathers, paper, textiles, dried fruit, and nuts 왔다갔다하면서 chain 만듬 Protect할려고 rulers often built roads and used armies Developed common systems of weights, measures, and coinage UNIT 3: Aksum: Agrarian society East Africa’s mightiest agrarian society (one of the four great powers: Rome, Persia, China, and Aksum) Began in the Fertile Cresent Northern Horn과 communicate함 -> Farming method filtered down from Egypt and Southwest Asia (semi-nomadic) Began to use iron and developed iron smelting independently Roman이 Egypt conquer하고 컨택함 -> soon became a hub overland b/w Roman Empire and India (to the Red Sea) Trade and expansion Managed trade with India and the Mediterranean sea (Ivory, gold, emeralds, silk, spices, crops, salt, exotic animals, manufactured goods) Strong navy to patrol the Red Sea and protect their trade routes (mentioned in Greco-Roman Scholars) No master plan for the city’s layout, or details of city’s wall placement -> develop so quickly Grand monuments -> elites were buried in huge stone pillars stelae Carvings 있어서 used to commemorate victories, regions of the kingdom, and great events Have own coinage - found in Rome to Persia to India Hierarchy Bureaucrats (귀족), priests, soldiers, merchants, and artisans Military expansion Transport and expand its frontiers with naval power Aksum controlled North Ethiopia and parts of Sudan Controlled the southern Arabia Peninsula, and Temen Ability to,, - Hire swords and ships - No comparable power in East Africa Network Adopted Christianity (Like to Roman Empire) Aksum at the center, crossed Afro-Eurasia Easily learn of technological developments Political history King of kings, smaller kingdoms paid tribute to him Uprising 막을려고 stationed warriors in each feudal area The main source of income for kings Agriculture and herding From growing cereal grains and raising cattle sheep and goats Certain cities became more urbanized, job specialization Cultural development The city of Aksum - the main center for kings and the royal court The city of Adulis - the large market town where goods from the interior of Africa were traded - Ivory, gold, perfume, and exotic animals (domestic) - Wine, olive oil, Roman and Indian coins, bronze lamps (foreign) Greek culture was traded (language and religious belief) Empire and Roman Empire (Byzantium) -> connection Frumentius (Greco-Phoenician tutor) - influenced the royal family to adopt Christianity Frumentius - introduced the throne to this faith (Christian) - became Bishop of Aksum Decline Desire to expand Run out of funds when launched a series of military campaigns Aksum elite fighting each other Justinianic Plague - a disease caused by the Black Death UNIT 4: MESOPOTAMIA: THE LAND OF FIRSTS Complex agricultural society, first empire developed, first language and first law code, first named author (Enheduanna - high priestess, daughter of Sargon the Great) Geography Between The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flow from the Zagros Mountains in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south Fertile soil - flourishing foragers and farmers New irrigation techniques and canal systems (운하) are being developed Flat, semi-arid -> Zagros Mountain에서 river flood -> fertile soil, staple crops Flooding and rising salt - cities could be ruined City Large city states - Eridu, Ur, and Uruk (South) Sumerians - people lived in the group of southern city-states Akkad - people lived in northern city-states Goods Metals, wood, lapis lazuli (Egypt, India, Afghanistan) Wheat, barley, reeds, clay pottery (domestic) Traded 1900 miles away for trade (standard of ur) Political structure Ruler (usually a king) directed projects for oversee large projects (irrigation, canals, walls to protect the city) Claimed to speak with the god Strong ruler who commanded soldiers to protect the city Lack of natural defenses (mountains or oceans) Sargon’s reign First Sargon's reign 때 soldiers (5000) First postal system (used to communicate with his officials) Akkadian은 the empire’s official language, built roads, standardized weights and measures -> trade flourish Trusted to positions -> making his daughter Enheduanna (a high priestess in Ur) Sargon’s drawback Use his standing army to put down many rebellions 죽고 나서 his male heir weakened the empire with famine A nomadic people from the Zagros Mountains defeated Sargon’s dynasty Sargon -> model ruler for future kings ex) Hammurabi of the Babylonian Empire, Sargon II of the Assyrian Empire Culture Cuneiform - The Sumerians wrote in a script -> the preserved tablets, records of trade transactions (bushels of wheat, religious inscriptions, letters, Sargon’s postal system) Clay tablets to write literaure (The Epic of Gilgameh - Gilgamesh’s quest for immortality) Sumerians used geometry to survey land for agriculture and irrigation Astronomers studied the heavens (the five planets), predicted eclipses, created zodiac signs Invented the 24-hour day, 60 minute hours, 60 second Enheduanna (priestess) wrote poetry dedicated to gods and goddess ex) The Exaltation of Inanna - tanks the goddess of love and war - Become one of the 10 required texts Society Agarian societies King Nobels on top / priests and priestesses Gods -> claimed to be divine / relationship with god Ziggurats (live in cities – high priests or priestesses like Enheduanna) Proper rituals were performed to appease the gods and goddesses Upper class - merchants, military officers, and cribes Lower class - farmers, soldiers, and artisans Some were enslaved Women (low; midwives, perfumers, brewers, or tavern managers) Decline Begin as independent city-states, turns to be a succession of empires : the Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians Alexander the Great이 줘팸 (extended from Egypt to India) Few natural barriers - invaders easily conquer an empire Internal politics (incompetent rulers) Environmental changes (supplied farms with water - too much salt, crop failed, famine) Famines weakened the authority of kings and sparked rebellions Seized these moments of weakness and invaded UNIT 5: RELIGION Confucianism Holy text: The Analects Founder: Confucius - Attributed by hundreds of aphorism (wise sayings or proverbs) - Confucius is merely a transmitter - He lives during the Eastern Zhou dynasty when different states were fighting to gain more power Encourage certain values (loyalty, trustworthiness, respecting your elders) through education Rituals and rules to encourage specific virtues -> adjust to ethical life -> became superior Five Key Relationship (father above son, …) – inferior person respect the superior, create balance and harmony Fillial piety (respect and honor for elderly) Little thoughts to concepts like heaven, hell, reincarnation / More on practical, worldly, maintaining harmony in family, government, and the community No harsh law or punishment like Legalism Buddhism Holy text: Tripitaka Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (The Buddha) Ascetic living Based on Brahmanism (verdic text, brought caste system to India) Hinduism: Formalized elements of Brahmanism (caste, divinity of the Vedas) Buddhism: Rejected many elements, revised / social structure -> 모두들 가능 Four Noble Truths (calculus) - Life is suffering - Suffering comes from desire - One must limit the desire to limit suffering - To limit suffering, one must follow the Eightfold Path (right view intention speech action livelihood effort mindfulness concentration) - Celibacy (독신), poverty, meditation, abstaining from violence - Women can adoptthe monastic way of life (스님) Mahayana Buddhism offers a flexible way (the great vehicle) - The middle path Silk Road caravans through Central Asia to China and Abroad Help by “Emperor Ashoka” - ruler of the Mauryan Empire Chinese, Japanese (caretakers for Shinto shrines) Judaism Holy text: Torah (five books) Founder: Moses and Abraham Monotheistic, among Hebrew people (b/w Mediterranean and the Jordan River Canaan) Community-based (Rabbi) Start with YHWH (Yahweh) Kingdom of Judah, the southern of the two Hebrew kingdoms The concept of the Covenant (agreement b/w people and god) Moses led the Hebrews out of enslavement Later individuals (Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah -> prophets) The Ten Commandments (10 rules of behavior - forbidding stealing,, / created Hebrew law) Hate celibacy -> Jewish thinkers and priests were married Fought with the Philistine 근데 Saul이 싸워주고 established a monarchy (carried on by David of Bethlehem) David’s son Sollomon이 building program (cities, palaces, fortresses, and roads) - Temple of Jerusalem Solomon죽고 northern part became Israel, the southern part became Judah 그러고 Persian Greek Roman empire가 먹음 The Book of Psalms (god punished people, god loe people) Christianity Holy text: Bible Founder: Jesus (developed initially in the Roman provice of Jedaea) Preached eternal happiness (Jesus of Nazareth: Jewish parents) Based on Hebrew Scripture, a conception of god and mortality Jesus - son of God and the Messiah (Christus) Establish a spiritual kingdom -> but the Roman official Pontius Pilate arrested Jejus and ordered him executed (worried about maintaining Jerusalem) Spread (Paul of Tarsus) – promise a blissful life after death for all who believed Mary (Jesus’ mother), Saints (people lived herocally or noteworthy) Live poverty but institution was wealthy / Roman이 persecute 했다가 받아줌 Emperor Constantiate supported (civil war에서) - became elaborate The Gospel of Matthew (Sermon on the Mount) - the first book in the Christian New Testament Hinduism Holy text: Vedas Founder: Aryans Polytheistic (Brahmins라는 priests can approach) Brahman - 일짱 (source of a universe) The Upanishads - cosmological text Endlessly repeating cycle, reincarnation, (samsara) One’s status in the next life (carma Moksha (a state of liberation, bliss, and awareness that achieved union with brahman) Dharma (piety, moral law, ethics, order) Starta (social status) - priests and warriors, the Brahmin and the Kshatriya Third - Peasants, laborers, (Vaishya) Fourth strata (Shudra) - social divisions religious sanctions Dark skin is savage Jati – births (common identity and ancestors, roles, rituals, and stauts by custome nad tradition) Caste (lowest shudras – untouchable) Female gods (Brahmin girl – learned housekeeping and domestic rituals / widows are unlucky) / Kingdom Islam Holy text: Qur’ran (recitation) Founder: Muhammad Muslim. married a wealthy widow Khadiga Umma - those who comply with God’s will Returned to Mecca at the head of a large army Conquered all of the Arabian peninsula – submission to God Central teaching: Allah Obligation of Jihad (self-exertion 노력) Five practices - the profession of faith in God and in Muhammad as God’s prophet, refular prayer at thome or in mosques, fasting during the sacred month of Radamda, giving alms (charity) to the poor, and a pilgrimage to Mecca Muhammad죽고 civil war and dispute : division between Sunnis (large) and Shi’a (small group Sulfism (personal spiritual experience) mysticism Approve heterosexual sex within marriage for both procreation and pleasure Polygyny (man has more than one wife) was common Islam women (wealthy_ used their money to establish schools, shrines, etc Sakk (check) banker to pay money held on account to a third party UNIT 6: NUBIA AND ANCIENT EGYPT Nile River Longest river in the world Foraging and pastoral communities lived in this area Nubia, A- Group culture Located Upper Egypt (South), modern-day Sudan Stretched from the first cataraact to the second cataract (shallow areas) Indo-Mediterranean (earliest farming society) Egypt common (rulers, written symbols, artistic features) Life Live in stone houses Storage fits, flint deposits, stone tools,, ect from Egypt and beyond Buried bodies facing west and left offering to guide the dead to the afterlife Lapis lazuli for female figure (fertility or religious) from like 존나 멀리 Grave Wealthy or high status -> include the bodies of cattle Held pottery beads gold ivory incense burners,, mace heads for powerful positions Women - givers of life Periods Predynastic period - before dynasties of kings ruling a unified Egypt Protodynastic period - a centralized kingdom began to emerge Early dynastic period - the earliest pharaohs Early Foundation of societies governed by kings north of the first cataract (upper egypt) and the nile delta (lower egypt) Certain crops grown in Egypt -> around the Fertile Crescent -> drying period때 resources of the NIle에다가 people push Connected to areas of Southwest Asian Interaction with the Mediterranean and Asian Predynastic More power, communities grow Rural - relatively self-sufficietnt / more on local scale The city of Abydos- housed the dead (necropolis) of Nubia and Naqada (burial place for Egyptian royalty) - shared belief Pre~Proto Scorpion I, King Narmer - managed the entire Upper Egypt Narmer and Menes the same? (왜냐면 palette랑 stone carving이 둘다 egypt unite했대) Mene - later king (Hor-Aha) Unification of Egypt Hieroglyphic writing became common Dual role as both god and king Duality in men and women (afterlife and notion of life) Equal pay, equal work, own business and land UNIT 7: SHANG DYNASTY CHINA Paleolithic (구석기시대) and Neolithic groups lived here before the invention of farming Huang He (Yellow River) lived in the north Barbarians - Chinese pastoralist (animal 돌보는 사람) in North and West Xia - first dynasty but no archaeological evidence so Shang is the first Shang dynasty Different classes (early farming에서 common) Ruler - military and bureaucrats - artisans (craftspeople) - the peasants (live slaves) Kings have the right to rule as the gods Lady Fu Hao - king wife had power - led her own army into battle, conducted sacrifice Animism Use oracle bones to communicate / write or scratch in bones until they cracked with heat The living often called upon their ancestors for help and guidance Dividiner would read the cracks (the king became the main shaman) Pictograms asked about the gender of a royal child or about military battles and strategy Observation Starts and sky from time included records of eclipses and solstices Construct a solar calendar of 365 days (opposed to the 354 day lunar calender) Records for farming, trade, taxation Cities and culture Stamped Earth - the soil to support wooden structures (similar to a concrete slab) The walled city of Erligang - walls of 10m, 20m thick, protected 3km^2 Bronze casting (for weapon, tool, bone,,) Jade Musical instruments (flutes and drums) Wealthy excavation Wealthy - tools, weapons, instruments, and beauty accessories were placed within the tomb to aid the spiritual realm Cowry shells - trade with costal regions Bronze-wheeleed chrariots (steppe people to the west - skilled in using horses and chariots) Skilled at Bronze and Silk textile Shang city of Yinxy’s tomb – Lady Fu Hao’s tomb -> one of many wives (consort) of King Wu Ding - Graved with bodies of 16 servants and six dogs, 500 bronze pieces, 130 weapons, 700 jade items, stone objects, five ivory pieces, over 500 bone ornamens, 6900 cowry shells -> military general (oracle bone told) - Powerful, perfom sacred sacrifices and ask ancestors for aid - Privilege and prestige Shang to the Zhou Dynasty Zhou (the plains of Eastern China) overthrew the last Shang king at the Battle of Muye Shang king’s corrupt, lost Mandate of Heaven (tian Ming), no virtue or morality 800 years ruling the China UNIT 8: THE OLMEC AND CHAVÍN The Olmec (Modern-day Mexico) Portion of Mesoamerica Along the Coatzacoalcos River near the Gulf of Mexico San Lorenzo - largest Olmec city, occupied by the ruling elites and religious leaders Tres Zapotes, Laguna de los Cerros, and La Venta (along the Papaloapan and Tonala rivers - extend from the Gulf of Mexico) Archaeological evidence Basalt - Carved from volcanic rock - 20 tons each / carved out of the Sierra de los Tuxtlas Mountains (transported 60-70 km - Depicts male head and distinctive face Depiction of gods - more magical creations (animal and human) Freestanding and relief sculptures, pottery, masks, and ritual tools Art made from jade and obsidian Maya and Aztects - similarities with Olmec art - certain cultural aspects Trade? First one to discover how to extract the sap and juice of the rubber tree to create a useful substance Ruins of a ball court (play with a rubber ball) Losing game killed - ritual bloodletting practices The Olmec god - human and animal forms, both male and female Ended in 350 due to volcanic eruptions or climate change (not sure) Chavín 5500km away from the Olmecs Along the Mosna and Huachesca rivers - the Peruvian Pacific coast and in the Andes Mountains region Spanish - name for the temple ruins at Chavin de Huantar Living Temple - for ritual purposes Had staircases, archways, corridors like a maze No hearths trash dwellings or evidences that they lived Dwelling - lowland, Near the river, crops such as quinoa were grown / up - potatoes Production of pottery, increase in food production Jars to carry and store Domesticated llamas Part of an interregional trade network Hierarchy Shaman-priests had the most authority Shamans induced a trance-like (최면) state (ingesting mushrooms cocoa leaves cactus juice) No defensive structure, no area or weapons of war Mythical animals like jaguars, snakes, eagles, and wingled crocodile Skilled at metal work (soldered gold (melt) to create crowns, masks, jewerly) Cotton textile for wall hanging UNIT 9: NOK SOCIETY Geography Sahara when it was grassland (Africa) - Ghana and Mali (muslim_ Northern part of Nigeria Archaeological evidence Number of invasions and a great deal of conflict Oral tradition Terracotta sculptures (brownish-red pottery in a similar style) Human figures with long heads, almond-shaped eyes, elaborate hairstyles Express love, sickness, music, and war Lots of jewelry and useful pots Women kneeling in front of each other Iron furnaces In-home Learn iron smelting technology on their own Nok society Lots of settlements Grain-grinding stones and other tools Large sculpture intentionally left or buried -> marker or shrine - Far away from settlements -> shared locations for worship or ritual - No evidence of kingship or palaces UNIT 10: INDUS RIVER VALLEY (nowadays Pakistan and northern India) Cities Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (two largest cities) 400 miles from each other, having similarities - Constructed on mounds that provided protection from flooding - Defensive positioning - Streets were laid out in a grid w/ elaborate well systems to deliver fresh water - Drainage system - dump sewage outside of the city - No central ruler, run by a wealthy families Trade networks Distribution of goods -> top priority Local to distant (Mesopotamia) Production Beads and metal work Put in roads for wheeled carts to move through Writing, trade, and spiritual beliefs Thousands of stamp seals w/ animals decorations - 65% are unicorn - represent a wealthy family or person (maybe) - For goods with trading purposes No central temple for the worship of gods Stamp seald에 잇는 tigers ca be found in the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgameshh Pottery Small tablets with the Indus script - numbering or accounting system Tablets were broken in half - for business contracts or a rock receipt Trade Lapis lazuli in Harappa Traveled form areas like Afghanistan and Iran Harappan’s pottery, seals, and weights can be found in Mesopotamia Decline The river that supplied fresh water to Mohenjo-daro changed course Decline in maintenance of drain and roads Indo-Europeans invaded the region (speculation) Indo-Europeans brought their language, knowledge, and the use of horses and chariots Climate change (most-accepted theory), shifting tectonic plates, a change in the course of rivers -> shit in population of Harappa or abandonment in Mohenjo-daro / migration? UNIT 11: GROWTH OF CITIES Cities were immoral and corrupt Uruk in Mesopotamia You could be a soldier or a priest,, Died earlier than those in rural areas (disease spreading faster) Provide more safety (walls) For money and a job Start of Urbanization In Mesopotamia and Egypt around 6,000 years ago China, India, and Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago Mesoamerica 2,500 years ago (the Andes mountains) Urban Hierarchy (O) Mesopotamian, Chineses, Mediterranean, and Mesoamerican No evidence of centralized authority of kings or temples (X) Jenno-Jeno on the Niger River, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa on the Indus River Technology Feed everyone, store food surplus Keep it clean Running water and sewers, metalworking Aqueducts and qanats (underground water tunnels) Extensive canals and irrigation, rice patties, dams and mines, roads Job Complicated networks rely on a bunch of other people Neighborhoods were based on econ functions and social status (rural: kinship (혈연) groups) Trade for shortage Conquer other cities Rural farmers and pastoralists were essential UNIT 13: AUTHORITY AND CONTROL IN ANCIENT EMPIRES Ashoka Ashoka (the Mauryan emperor / Buddhism) erected a series of public inscriptions on large pillars Ashoka - imperial control (never disbanded his army or melted down their weapons Use dynastic family ties, and control of peripheries to maintain their authority& keep their people in line Dynastic legitimacy Often corrupt and unworthy Ex) the concept of the Mandate of Heaven -> take power and immunize against accusations of corruption Blood relations - Han Empire - Gaozu - Japanese Emperor (back to Emperor Jimmu) - Roman Empire - chosen for leadership qualities Emperors and empresses Masculine, emperor power Held by successful generals (emperor) Role of empress - Subordinate to the emperor - To bear a son who would become emperor - ex) The Eastern Roman Empress Theodora - her husband’s adviser - ex) The empress Lü - married to Gaozu (first Han emperor) -> 죽고 son too young -> become the emperor - ex) Hatshepsut -> a regent for the child emperor Thutmose III/rule over Egypt Religion and Control The Zhou Dynasty - created the concept of a Mandate of Heaven Mandate to justify seizing power Brought their religion to conquered territories ex) Neo-Assyrian Empire made sure their cult god Assur became included among the gods -> Assur가 rule하면 자기도 할 수 있어서 (Ashoka used his Buddhism to unite the people of his empire) ex) Cyrus the Great of Persia -> he was the rightful ruler of Babylon (Mesopotamia) Bc city’s god (Marduk) personally selected him ex) goddnapping (bringing them back) - the Hittites of ancient Anatolia Death and taxes Ensure the loyalty was no easy feat Use them as soldiers To ensure loyalty, ex) The Han Empire of China created commanderies 지휘관 (administrative districts) to manage its peripheries -> based on the code of laws -> more efficient and taxation while keeping peace and order ex) Roman Empire -> vassal (subordinate) kings Rebellion The First Jewish Revolt in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero Abuses by Judea (heavily taxed) The fall of the fortress of Masada -> 967 Jews committed suicide Toleration and violence The Persian Emperor - who believed to protect his empire from chaos (include the Greeks, allowed considerable freedom as long as they paid lip service The Romans - treated peripheral people as emperors, only a few were granted citizenship - The reign of Caracalla - citizenship was granted to all / but harsher lines dividing the “haves” and “have-nots” -> the latter was exploited UNIT 13: ANCIENT GREECE: THE FIRST GREEKS Recognized in the Renaissance era (not Middle Ages - lost their prominence) Humans are a measure of all things Individualism First of democratic government (but most people were still excluded) Democracy, philosophy, sculpture, dramatic tragedies, the Olympic Games The first Greeks The Minoans and the Mycenaeans - populate the Greek peninsula The Minoans occupied the island of Crete (south of the Greek mainland) - seafaring tade The Myceaneans - came from India migrated people The Myceaneans wiped out the Minoans Dark age - no economic growth, literacy disappeared Wiped out by Dorians UNIT 14: THE GOLDEN AGE OF ATHENS One of the city-states in Greece A golden age (449-431) under the leadership of Pericles Pericles Brilliant general, speaker, lawmaker, and supporter The first citizen of Athen’s democracy Turned Athens into an empire - built the famous “Parthenon” (신전) Rise of power of Pericles Father - Xanthippus was a hero of the Persian War (b/w Greek city-states and the Persian Empire, ancient Iran) His production of a play Get support for Themistocles (Athens’ leader) over the noble Cimon (future enemy) Outfit check Wearing a helmet - A symbol as an Athenian general - Covered his very large head - Nicknamed Schinocephalos (sea onion-head) Work To arrest Cimon for allegedly betraying Athens Leader of Athens’ democratic party Sponsered the establishment of Athenian colonies on the coast of the Black Sea and Northern Greece Elected as strategos (leading generals) Golden age After a Persian attack, Athens and its alliance formed the Delian League Delian Leauge - military alliance focused on the threat from the Persians Athens’ leaders pushed to transfer the league’s money from Delos to Athens Imposed Athenian weights and measures Relative peace bw Persian and Peloponnesian wars Architecture The Temple of Athena Nike (on the city’s hilltop Acropolis) The Erechtheum and the towering Parthenon Elaborate w/ greatest sculptures Pericles’ achievements Art accessible to the poor (paying their theater admission, increased participation in government by offering pay for jury duty) Close with intellects - The playwright Sophocles - The sculptor Phidias - Pericles’ partner Aspasia is a teacher of Socrates Peloponnesian War and Death of Pericles Sparta demanded things from Athens -> refused Sparta and Corinth (allay) pushed the Spartan king to invade Pericle - naval force Evacuated (대피시키다) the countryside -> superior Spartan armies would have no one to fight Plague hit -> all die Pericle kick out됬다가 다시 들어감 Pedicle's two sons died -> Pericles gave in to the illness 죽고나서 Plato was born. UNIT 14: THE SPARTANS: FIERCE FIGHTERS OF ANCIENT GREECE Warrior society, reached the height after defeating Athens Agoge - military service at age 7 (state-sponsored) Emphasized duty, discipline and endurance Women were educated and enjoyed more status and freedom than others The Helots - slaves 허드렛일 다함 Thebes한테짐 at the Batlles of Leuctra Society Sparta (Lacedaemon) in southern Greece called Laconian Population: The Spartans (Spartiates, full citizens), The Helots (slaves), The Perioeci (neither slaves nor citizens -> craftsmen or traders, built weapons for the Spartans Male’s role Joined the Agoge (the compulsory state-sponsored education system) Obedience, endurance, courage and self-control Loyalty to the state The Helots The captives, conquered by the Spartans Unskilled labor (farmers, domestic servants, nurses, and military attendants) Spartans to the Helots Get drunk and make them fools Prevent uprisings by treating them brutally Young people to not act like this Kill them if they were too smart or too fit Culture Only one job: soldier Austere conditions, physical competitions, stealing food for survival The Crypteia - a secret police to terrorize the general Helot population 20 - full-time soldiers to age 60 The Phalanx formation - coordinated mass maneuvers No one is superior to another Outfit check Hoptile (a Spartan soldier) wore a large bronze helmet, breastplate, and ankle guards, carried a round shield made of bronze and wood, a long spear and a sword Known for their long hair and red cloaks Women No role in military, formal education Engage in athletic competitions (javelin throwing and wrestling) to attract maels Manage own property no cooking (all done by the Helots) Marriage was important, put pressure on people to bear male children (grow up to become citizen-warriors) Men who delayed marriage – shamed, men with multiple sons got rewards Women had their heads shaved for marriage, kept their hair short after they wed Men under 30 need to live in communal barracks Sneak away in order to meet wives Decline Defeat from the Thebans at the Battle of Leuctra Theban general Epaminodas led an invasion - oversaw the liberation of the Messenian Helots Otto (the king of Greece) found the modern-day Sparta UNIT 15: DEMOCRACY IN ANCIENT GREECE Demokratia - rule by the people Introduced by the Athenian leader Cleisthenes Equality before the law Herodotus (the Greek historian) – claimed that Cleisthenes abolished the political distinctions b/w the Athenian aristocrats (distinct the middle and working class) But.. 100,000 people were resident foreigners (metoikoi), 150,000 were slaves Only 40,000 people (male who were older than 18) could participate in the democratic process Three governing body The ekklesia (assembly) - A governing body that wrote laws and dictated foreign policy - 40,000 adults can join - Held 40 meetings per year in Pnyx (hillside auditorium, 5,000 people limited, others need to work as the army or navy or support their families) - Made decisions about war and foreign policy, wrote and revised laws, and approved or condemned the conduct of public officials - Simple majority vote The boule - A council of representatives from the ten Athenian tribes - Met everyday was in charge of navy ships and army horses - Dealt w/ ambassadors from other city-states - 500 members determined how the entire democracy worked - Lottery but wealthy and influential people served more frequently The dikasteria - The popular court in which citizens argued cases before a group of lottery-selected jurors - Jurors chosen by lottery everyday (500 people) older than 30 - Aristotle: contributed most to the strength of democracy - No police -> brought course cases, delivered verdicts - Use this to embarrass their enemies - Paid work - could be accessible to everyone - Payments from custom duties, contributions from allies and taxes by metoikoi - Leitourgia (liturgy) - wealthy people volunteered to pay for major undertakings (ex: maintenance of a navy ship) End One man, the best (Herodotus called) - aristocracy (귀족정치) UNIT 16: GREEK GODS AND GODDESSES Polytheistic Gods and goddesses lived at the top of Mount Olympus (the highest mountain in Greece Gods intervened in human lives ex) Zeus using thunderbolt / when it rained and there’s thunder and lightning, Zeus was venting his anger Two epic poems: The Iliad (events of the Trojan War), and The Odyssey (the travels of the hero Odysseus) Flawed individuals (god) Zeus - rarely faithful to his wife (Hera) Hera plotted against Zeus and punished his mistress No Judaic Ten Commandments Athena (the goddess of wisdom) sprang directly from the head of Zeus Hermes (winged feet) was a messenger of the gods and could fly anywhere Aphrodite (the goddess of love) was the most beautiful being Ares (love’s brother) the god of war and sinister, mean, and disliked Poseidon - ruled the sea from his underwater palace Apollo - rode his chariot across the sky, bringing the sun with him Hades - god of the underworld, punishing people - Charon (boatman) ferried the souls across the river Styx to Hades - Tantalus gets punished for killing his own son and served him to the gods for dinner (made forever thirsty and hungry) Pandora’s box -> curious / famine, greed, pain, sorrow,, remained in the box was hope -> origin of human’s misfortune, the dangers of curiosity Hercules - the world’s strongest man -the illegitimate son of a mortal woman and Zeus (disguised himself as the woman’s husband) Hera was angry -> tricked Herculus that the entire family was dangerous beasts - kill all Hercules performed 12 tasks - kill Hydra (9-head monster, clean the filth from the Augean stable, divert the course of a river) Achilles - win the Trojan War (father: peleus) Orpheus and Eurydice King Midas and the Golden touch The Halcyon Birds - calm the sea and control the water Talos - the first robot (Hephaestus - god of technology) UNIT 16: Ancient philosophy Egypt - the Filed of Reeds - Souls of the virtuous dead would live eternally - Place in the paradise - The concept of Ma’at (harmony and balance), the concept of immortality, the possibility of reincarnation, the nature of the divine Mesopotamia - Had an agreement with gods - Humans owed them a debt of gratitude - The Epic of Gilgamesh (Gilgamesh loses his bff Enkidu, questions arose Indian philosophy - Response to the Vedas (Hinduism) - exact words of god - Upanishads - composed to explain the message - The materialist school of Charvaka - The system of Jainism - developed by Mahavira - Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) Persian philosophy - Zoroaster - first major Persian philosopher - Ahura Mazda (single god) the creator and sustainer of the universe - Ahriman -> rival, the lord of darkness and chaos - Zorvanism (why he created something evil?) - Zorvan (the god of Infinite Time had created both) - Brother-deities had no choice but to take sides Chinese philosophy - The Spring and Autumn Period (times of chaos), the Warring States -> time of chaos and disorder - Confucianism were composed during the Zhou dynasty - Hundred Schools of Thought (Taoism by Lao Tzu, Legalism by Han Feizi) - GIven the sole right to Tian but no longer maintain - rulers always fought for supremacy Greek philosophy - Began with Thales of Miletus - Basic stuff of the universe? - The Milesian School - the first philosophical school in the West, followed by Anaximander and Anaximenes -> first cause was water (reject) and suggested their own - Plato - concepts further (based on Socrates) - Socrates - Xenophon로 연결 (founder of philosophy) - Spread throughout the Mediterranean - Xenophon’s Memorabilia was acquired by Zeno of Citium - who founded the Stoic School in Athens based on Socrates’s vision - Stoicism traveled through Diogenes of Babylon - influenced the thought of Epictetus - Stoicism - shaped the reign of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius - Saint Paul the Apostle - vision of the Christian New Testament Socrates - Teaching by asking questions - Sentenced to death - Son of Sophroniscus - People learn more from using their minds to reason than from religious teaching - Work best when government ruled by individuals with the greatest ability - Stubborn in defending his ideas - “He who sees with his eyes is blind” - “I know that I know nothing” Plato - Dialogues (his teaching method) - Founded the world’s first university - Teach philosopher Aristotle - Republic - a civilization governed not by low appetites, but by the pure wisdom of a philosopher king - Syracuse (the ruling family, later seek his advice on reforming their city’s politics) - Rulers, their agents, and ordinary citizens - Timaeus, Laws - Theory of forms - objects in the world have been idealized, and our world is an imitation of the possible perfection - Theory of Soul Aristotle - Founded his own school the Lyceum - Tutored Alexander the Great - Enrolled in Plato’s Academy - Tutored King Phillip II’s son - Knowledge could be obtained through interacting with physical objects - Science (biology, marine life,) - Study of weather (in meteorology) - Syllogism (logical argument where the conclusion infers from two or more other premises) - Main components of reasoning - inclusive and exclusive relationships, the use of Venn diagrams - Nicomachean Ethics, he prescribed a moral code - Categories - The academic center of the universe UNIT 17: ROMAN EMPIRE AND REPUBLIC I Began on central Italy’s Tiber River Origin Romulus and Remus (twin sons of Mars, the god of war) Romulus killed Remus and became the first king Monarchy to republic Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was overthrown (after the rape of a virtuous noblewoman by Lucretia - the king’s son) Property of the people (republic) Early Republic Consuls - served as commanders in chief of the army (magistrates) - Elected by the people, but most of them came from the Senate - One of two officials who were chosen every year to manage the government and the army The long struggle between patricians (wealthy) and plebeians (common person, low social class) Plebeians were able to initiate veto legislation Twelve tables (code of law) - Procedure for courts and trials/trials/debt/ rights of fathers over the family/ legal guardianship and inheritance laws/ acquisition and possession/ land rights/ torts and delicts (laws of injury)/ public law/ sacred law/ supplement I,, so on - Real power on the Senate (wealthy plebeians or patrician) Military expansion Rebounded under the leadership of the military hero Camillus Gain control of the entire Italian peninsula The Punic Wars with Carthage (northern Africa) First and two - ended with Rome in full control of Sicily (the western Mediterranean and much of Spain) Third - Romans destroyed the city of Carthage - making it into Roman province Defeated King Philip V of Macedonia in the Macedonian Wards Greeks to Latins Struggles Internal turmoil and violence (빈부격차) Gaius Marius - commoner that 군사실력 엄청나서 consul까지감 General Sulla (opposition of Gaius, fellow general) emerged as military general Retired 하고 pompey가 맡음 - successful military campaigns against pirates Gaius Julius Caesar - The First Triumvirate (w/ the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus and Pompey - Tension오짐 - From his alliance, Caesar received the governorship of three wealthy provinces in Gaul - Pompey’s wife died (Caesar’s daughter) - Crassus were killed in battle against Parthia - Broken but Caesar’s military glory and wealth eclipsed Pompey - undermine Caesar Julius’s uprise Crossed the Rubicon (border bw Italy from Cisalpine Gaul) - ignited a civil war -> became dictator Murdered by group of enemies (Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius) Consul Mark Antony and Octavian (Caesar’s nephew) 물려받음 Divide power w/ ex-consul Lepidus -> Second Triumvirate But tensions developed and 해체 Octavian triumphed over the forces of Antony and Cleopatra (onetime lover of Caesar) -> Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide Octavian (Augustus) - absolute power! Political institution잘 정리하지만 real power나 얻고 있었다.. First emperor of Rome UNIT 17: ROMAN EMPIRE AND REPUBLIC II Ruled by the Etruscans but overthrew him and founded the Roman Republic Senate: Sole governing body, a great influence on the Roman Republic Established the Concilum Plebis (plebis got a voice) Was a democracy at first Assemblies share power Comitia Centuriata - Made decisions about war - Passed laws and elected magistrates or high officials - Appeals of death sentences and conducted foreign relations Concilum Plebis - Elected its own officials and made laws for the plebeian class - Later, all Romans had to follow the law Comita Tributa - Open to all citizens - Minor officials and approved many legislative decisions - Served as a judicial court, had the power to fine people solely The rise of Julius Caesar Two consuls were elected, serve for 1 year Factions emerge - support either the patrician or plebeian or specific military general - civil war Julius gaining power - became wealthy after conquering the province of Gaul (now Western Europe) Senate became afraid -> command Caesar to return his army to a regular citizen Refused, marched his army directly to Rome Assassinated -> Augustus defeated the conspirators and became the first emperor The Growth Assemblies lost power Formally came from the Senate (power given to the emperor) Wipe the record ofo his reign from official history (their ability_ Augustus - controlled the Italian peninsula,, dominated most of the European continent Decline and Fall Diocletian became emperor, split the Roman Empire into a western half and an eastern half to easier control -> two conflict and empire weakened and finally collapsed Repeatedly attacked by foreign groups (Vandals, Visigoths) Romulus Aufustulus was overthrown – the eastern half (the Byzantine Empire) lasted 1,000 years, failing to the Ottoman Turks UNIT 18: ROMAN’s decline Roman’s first murder to Tiberius Gracchus by senates Increase in violence Cato the Younger – used procedural delays to block the senate formo voting on legislators Shut down all public business by declaring each day of the year a religious holiday Cato the Younger - functioned well Augustus was one of two consuls -> but dictator Germanic soldier (Odoacer) claimed to be the king of Italy -> end of traditional Roman Empire but start of Byzantine Empire Roman Consultation Consuls: near-autocratic powers (military and wartime matters) Senate: controlled finances, foreign policy, investigation of major crimes - Aristocratic - Composed of Rome’s elite (former magistrates) The people - Had significant power over rewards, punishments,, key decision like war, peace, and laws Senate> Consuls Resilient, unconquerable UNIT 19: HAN DYNASTIES The Xia dynasty first of many ancient Chinese ruling houses Xia king - Yu - Repaired the damage caused by a major flood in the Yellow River - God rewarded him with the Mandate of Heaven (right to rule) - Tribal leadership to hereditary kingship with his son Qi -> inheriting the throne Overthrown by the first Shang leader Shang king was overthrown by the Zhou king Zhou dynasty Longest of ancient China’s dynasties (1046 - 256 BCE) Divided into two eras - Western Zhou (1046- 771) capital @Haojing - Eastern Zhou (770-256) capital @Luoyang Confucious and the first Taoist thinkers lived Warring States Period - the seven regions were in serious infighting Qin armies - emerged victorious, and overthrew the Zhou leaders China and the Terracotta Warriors (The Qin dynasty) The Qin dynasty only lasted for 15 years - Period of unification (brought under Chinese rule) - Qin Shin Huang (first leader) was the first emperor - Work on the Great Wall of China - Qin Shin was buried in a mausoleum w/a massive terracotta armies (almost 8,000 statues) - Qin Er shi 물려받음 but only 3 years - Rebels -> Liu Bang becam e the first emperor of the Han Dynasty Han dynasty Golden Age of China Confucianism became the official state religion The Silk Road was established Han rule was followed by the Three Kingdoms Period Three Kingdoms period States divided into Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Dong Wu (fractured into the northern and southern territories) The Sui dynasty Managed to unify the northern and southern territories The Sui were overthrown by the Tang The Tang dynasty The Greatest of the dynasties Only female ruler (Empress Wu Zetian - reigned for 20 years) The Song dynasty and Mongol take over Defeated by the Mongols under Kublai Khan (lated till 1279) Mongols ruled the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) The Yuan Dynasty Deposed in 1268 by the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang Set up a stable yet autocratic state Expand the Great Wall of China Invaded Manchu forces, ended the Ming dynasty in 1622 The Manchu - an ethnic minority with their own language and customs Last emperor - Qin dynasty The Manchu invaders established3 lasted till 1911 19th to 20th - Western conflicts The last of the Chinese emperor - Puyi stepped down Became a republic Harsh leaders - supported the idea of Legalism (human nature could not be trusted , only with strict laws and severe penalties) Replaced Liu Pang pf the Han -> gained control over the border states UNIT 20: HAN DYNASTY Ideas of Buddhism, use of Silk Road Silk and spices with lands as far west as India and the Roman Empire The Great Wall The Zhou and the Qin -> great advances made by the early Chinese Building system The use of iron A system of hydraulics -> used to dig riverbeds deeper (reduced the number of floods) Zhou dynasty A lack of unity Feudalism - a practice in which the king shared his power with lords, who in turn paid the king for their lands The Warring States period only ended -> Qin으로 united 됬을때 The rise of the Han Restored nobles to their positions of power and the Chinese people prospered in peace once again Paper and porcelain were invented (+ wheelbarrow) The Mandate of Heaven, Wu Ti, or Wudi - the major achievements Rulers under heaven’s rule according to the mandate Gods unhappy with an emperor’s rule - signs would be sent to the Chinese people, usually in the form of natural disasters The emperor lost the Heavenly Mandate -> usually overthrown Wu Ti (reigned for 54 years) / expanded the borders of China into Vietnam and Korea The Shiji Heard rumors of powerful and wealthy lands Chang Ch’ien sent the explorer (100 men) Searched the lands of Persia, Arabia or the Roman Empire, Chang Ch’ien Make alliances w/ cattle, gold and silk (Chang Ch’ien) Shiji (record of these journeys) - chronicles the history of China from the XIa dynasty to the reign of Wu Ti Chang Ch’ien’s journeys -> Silk Road (reached as far west as the Caspian Sea) Ivory, glass, wool, tapestries, exotic fruits and vegetables, precious metals and stones, even animals like elephants and lions (imported) China - furs, spices, jade, iron, ceramic and bronze objects to other lands Silk clothing - became the style and obsession The Great Wall Begun during the Qin dynasty We Ti continued with 300 miles into the Gobi Desert (protection against attacks from central Asia) The Great Wall came at a high price -> 1 mile of the wall was created each day (average cost of 10 lives per mile) Hights and lows Acupunture (the piercing of needles into the skin) became popular - treatment for common illness, and herbal medicine Studied in astronomical matters / believed in comets, eclipses and other unusual events in the sky were ominous signs -> used to predict future disasters Atlases depicting the shapes of 29 different types of comets / the accurate positions of Venus, Jupiter and Saturn Government began to take its toll Finally lost its Heavenly Mandate in A.D. 220 400 years of political chaos The Fall of the Han Dynasty Golden age - economic, cultural, and scientific growth -> the creation of a Chinese identity The emperors all belonged to the Liu family Rule spread over two periods (the Western Han, and the Eastern Han) Wang Mung (interruption between these two periods - imperial decline) but only lasted for 16 years (Xin Dynasty) Controlled approximately 2.5 million -> ruled over nearly 60 million people Huangdi (the emperor) – more than a secular ruler, closely connected to the divine world / respected by his people as a kind of spiritual being The collapse of the Han Dynasty Eastern - Natural disasters outside of their control (cattle plagues, locusts, droughts, floods, and earthquakes -> strong enough to withstand in 200 years -> too great to bear Torn apart into three kingdoms by warlords The Han and outsiders Tribal groups along China’s borders had a tense relationship with the Han / non-Han (Chinese) -> they were inferior (han’s thought) The Han emperors -> saw themselves as enlightened -> bringers of peace and order to the tribes Problematic tribal groups would be resettled deeper Chinese tribal싫어해서 mistreat / cheat on them The Han defeated a large tribal grou[: Xiongu Xiongu - opened the flood gates to invasion -> serious rains on Han resources Problems from within Internal struggles to maintain its rule Taxation increased – the small farmers were the most stable tax base local elites (who owned large estates) - contributed less of their wealth and energy to the empire Many small farmers gave up their land to work for local elites on their estates as tenants or as debt slaves Productivity increased, smaller farmers were able to avoid paying taxes Emperor vs Eunuches (The Yellow Turban Revolt) Eunuches became a powerful group -> elites felt threatehend (emperor랑 친해서) - Eunuchs are castrated -> 모든 충성을 제국에 바칠 수 있었음 Emperor Ling - hatched a plan to kill hundreds of eunuches - failed - One of the 3 leaders (thrown in prison and 2 committed suicide) - Severed heads were put on display - Eunuchs became even more powerful by attaching themselves tighter to the boy Emperor Ling (age 11-12) - Emperor Ling - weak and corrupt ruler -> marked by rebellions and protests - One of the most dangerous (반란이 끊이지않음) was the Yellow Turban Revolt of 184 CE The Yellow Turban Revolt (a peasant rebellion) Sparked by numerous outbreaks of a lethal plague throughout the 170s and 180s People죽으면서 다 emperor다 blame -> heavy taxes Peasants believed they might ind magical cures by turning to faith healers - Zhang Jue -> movement into a violent uprising, revolt against the Han - Defeat the rebels, but continued to flare up Emperor Ling’s dead and euchun Emperor Shao / the dowager empress He Her family select the next emperor (shao was 13) He jin 이 new dowager emperor The eunuchs lured He gin to palace and 암살 -> retalitaiton으로 2000 eunuchs were killed in the pace by troops General Dong Zhou - seize control of the capital city of Luoyang - Overthrew the young emperor (commit suicide by drinking poison) - Sat the eight-year old Liu Xie on the throne as Emperor Xian (꼭두각시로 조정) - Dong Zhou 인기 어뵤어서 killed by his bodyguard - Cao Cao 가 이을려했지만 died -> tried to unify China -> failed (young emperor Xian도 이을려했지만 실패, 강제로 give up his posiiton) end of the Han Dynasty Main reason of decline Bad rulers The influence of empresses and court eunuchs over child emperors to ruly by themselves The Yellow Turban Revolt Too many individuals were poor at their jobs No clear heirs Against the belief - power must come from a male Han victories over Xiongnu -> no more strong enemies to fight Only warfare (전쟁) could keep the generals royal Lions at a vegeterian barbeque Split between the emperor and the scholars Divide between the empire and the wealthy Without money, the emperors could not respond to crises like invasion, rebelion, and natural disaster

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