Geography Exam Review PDF

Geography Exam Review What is Geography ? ​ Geography is the city of the world’s environment, human societies and humans’ interaction with the environment ​ All geographers need to understand both Human and physical environments because they constantly interact with each other and a...

Geography Exam Review What is Geography ? ​ Geography is the city of the world’s environment, human societies and humans’ interaction with the environment ​ All geographers need to understand both Human and physical environments because they constantly interact with each other and affect each other ​ Geography helps spark your curiosity about the places around you, so that you may become an engaged active citizen in any of you communities ​ Geography gives you skills to help you succeed and to participate as a global citizen Physical Geography ​ The branch of geography that studies the natural environment Human Geography ​ The branch of geography that studies cultures, manmade features and the built environment Interrelationships ​ A relationship between different feature or groups of features seen from patterns or trends ​ An interrelationship is said to occur when one things causes of impacts another one identifiable way ​ There are 4 types of interrelationships: Natural to Natural, Human to Natural, Natural to Human and Human to Human ​ Examples: Trees Grown in Soil (Natural to Natural), Emitting Greenhouse Gases leads to Climate Change (Human to Natural), Mountains/hills will be used for Ski Resorts (Natural to Human), Population Distribution determines where McDonald's Locations are, (Human to Human) Patterns in geography ​ Patterns: Repeated a characteristics that a change (show differences) over space ​ Patterns may be displayed through the use of colour gradation on maps, known as choropleth maps. The colour intensity matches the data intensity ​ Dots or symbols may also be used to indicative location, such as the location of active volcanoes in Japan ​ Differently could red dots/symbols may be used to indicate both location and intensity, such as the location and intensity of earthquake in Japan  ​ Geographic vocabulary is used to describe the types of patterns found on maps and graphs Continental Drift ​ the theory where at one point in time, all of the continents were joined together in one large landmass prior to splitting apart and drifting into their current positions Alfred Wegener ​ In 1915, Alfred Whener, said that the only possible answer to shifting of the continents would be continental drift ​ He believed that 300 million years ago all the Earth's land masses, which were in constant motion, collided to form one supercontinent, Pangaea, and then drifted apart once again. ​ The pieces drifted in different directions to their present positions ​ He suggested that perhaps the spinning of the earth and the force of gravity from the sun and moon might have pulled the continents apart, but he still could not use this as evidence because he couldn't prove it ​ Pangaea - the earth had been changing and continues to change because it relates to the movements of continents, it has been proven that the continents were all grouped together as one huge landmass, the supercontinent known as Pangaea Plate tectonics ​ The theory that Earth’s outer shell is made up of individual plates that move, causing earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains as well as the formation and destruction of areas of the crust ​ The theory of plate tectonics is one of the most important theories to result in scientific research ​ It explains why we have mountain ranges, majestic plains, and deep oceans ​ Even though the earth's crust may seen solid it is actually floating on molten rock that is inside the earth ​ This outer layer of the earth's crust is not a single piece it is made up of dozens of pieces called plates ​ There are Seven Major Plates: North American Plate, South American Plate, Pacific Plate, Eurasian Plate, Australian Plate, African Plate and Antarctic Plate, Eras ​ Precambrian started 4.6 billion years ago and ended 579 million years ago - sponges and jellyfish appear, Canadian Shield Forms, aquatic plants appear, bacteria may have existed  ​ Paleozoic started 579 million years ago and needed 245 million years ago - compost coal deposits form, first reptiles appear, abundant fish, many spiders, insects, farms, first amphibians appear, armored fish and large coral reefs dominate the seas, collision of North america and Europe results in formation of Appalachian mountains, first vertebrates appear in the seas, sedimentary rocks form and many invertebrates develop ​ Mesozoic started 245 million years ago and ended 66 million years ago - formation of Western Cordillera begins, first feathered birds and mammals appear, most oil and gas deposits form, great variety of fish and reptiles, shallow seas cover North America, reptiles dominate and age of the dinosaurs ​ Cenozoic Era started 66 million years ago to present day - human beings emerge develop, ice age ends, continents move to present positions, Alps and Himalayas form, early forms of mammals dominate, rocky mountains form Glaciation ​ Glaciers could never make the track team. Most of them move too slowly– only 25 cm a day. They creep along as giant earth-moving machines, scraping away the soil and rocks and changing everything underneath them. Glaciers melt and refreeze which weakens the structure of the rocks in and under them. Great forces from a glacier’s weight press down on the rocks. Glaciers weather (break down) rocks as they move. ​ Force from the weight, along with melting and refreezing, moves the ice along. Water that melts from the glacier collects below and also helps the heavy ice to move. It carries and pushes the weathered rocks. The glacier moves rocks away from their original place and changes drainage patterns. This is called the erosional effect. ​ The weathered and eroded rocks moved by erosion can be found hundreds of kilometres away. This is called the depositional effect (adding sediments to land). The materials deposited (left behind) by ice are not sorted by size. These unsorted materials are made up of loose sediments and rocks of all sized called till and create till plains and moraines. As the glacier melts you get large amounts of meltwater which moves glacial debris like a river. The landscape carved by glacial meltwater tends to be very flat, and has rich soil which makes it great for farmland. ​ As a glacier weathers and erodes the land in its path, it carves out a specific kind of valley. Due to their width, their valleys are U-shaped, with step sides and a round valley floor. Climate Factors (LOWER Near Water) ​ L = Latitude -​ The farther a location is from the equator, the less direct sunlight is received -​ This means that the farther you move either North or South, and away from the equator, the temperature will decrease ​ O = Ocean Currents  -​ There are 2 types of Ocean currents: Warm and Cold -​ Warm Currents are those moving away from the equator -​ Winds moving across the ocean current are warmed. The wind brings this temperature to land areas it crosses -​ Warm Currents will keep winter and summer conditions on the land warmer -​ 3 Warmer currents in North America, 1. Warm North Atlantic drift, 2. Warm Gulf Stream, 3. Warm North Pacific Current -​ Cold Currents are those moving towards the equator. -​ Winds moving across the ocean current are cooled. The wind brings this temperature to land areas it crosses -​ Cold currents will keep both winter and summer conditions on land colder -​ 2 Cold Currents in North America, Labrador Current and California Current -​ Ocean currents create Fog: One area where Canada experiences intense foggy conditions is Atlantic Canada -​ Fog occurs because the air above the cold and warm ocean currents mixes together ​ W = Winds, Air Masses, Jet streams -​ An air mass is a large volume of air that takes on the climatic conditions of the area in which it forms: Example; An air mass that forms over an ocean will contain moist air, an air mass that forms far form the ocean will have very dry air -​ An Area where you live may experience one air mass over a period days, followed by another one with different characteristics -​ A heatwave in the middle of summer, where temperatures exceed 30 degrees, when this weather pattern is followed by a cool sunny spell, with temperatures around 20 degrees, a new air mass has moved in -​ Air has weight - weight is called air pressure -​ Different air pressures are created when the earth is heater to different temperatures: air that is heated is called Low Pressure (L) -​ Air that is cooled is called a High Pressure (H) -​ Wind is Air that moves horizontally over the Earth’s surface -​ Air moves over the Earth’s surface from areas of higher air pressure, to areas of lower air pressure - this creates wind belts ​ E = Elevation -​ The higher the elevation, the cooler/colder the temperatures -​ As air rises it expands because there is less air pressure -​ As the air expands, it loses heat  -​ Also air thins and cannot retail heat; there is less area for the Sun’s radiation to heat as air rises pressure decrease ​ R = Relief -​ It means the shape of the surface of the land -​ Mountain barriers create relief precipitation -​ Air crosses over a large body of water and carriers moisture up the slope of the mountain -​ The moisture will rise up the windward slope of the mountain - this side will then receive all the moisture -​ Places on the windward side of an elevated area will get substantially more rain and snow than places on the leeward side -​ As the air continues to travel over the mountain barrier, it loses all of its moisture and the other side of the mountain becomes very dry -​ The dry side of the mountain is known as the Leeward Slop -​ The leeward side is on the opposite side of the windward slope, away from the wind’s direction ​ Near Water = Near Water -​ One of the most important climate factors is closeness to water -​ A climate can be described as: Maritime Climate: -​ Places that are near an ocean or a large body of water -​ The annual temperature range is quite small and precipitation is high -​ Annual Temperature range: temperature of the warmest month, minus the temperature of the coldest month -​ Bodies of water have a “moderating effect” on land temperatures -​ Oceans and lakes heat up and cool down more slowly than land masses -​ In the summer: The Bodies of water remain cooler than the land and winds that blow from over the water keeps the land cooler because winds carry moisture onto land -​ In the Winter: the body of water remains its heat is warmer than the land -​ The winds that blow from over the water carry warm air onto the land, heating the land Continental Climate: -​ These are areas which are far from oceans and large lakes -​ Areas which are interior land masses -​ The annual temperature range is large and precipitation is low -​ There is no large body of water to moderate the temperature - no moderating effect in continental climates -​ Which areas is Canada have a continental climate?  -​ Prairie Provinces - Alberta,Saskatchewan, Manitoba -​ Special Case - Areas near the Great Lakes are considered to have a modified continental climate -​ They are far enough from the ocean to be considered continental, however, the size of the Great Lakes provide a partial maritime influence -​ Once they are frozen they act just like land Natural Vegetation Regions ​ Natural Vegetation means any plants or trees that grow on their own “Naturally” without any form of human intervention ​ The Tundra - Located above the tree line so trees do not grow here due to the cold and dry climate, most of the ground is frozen and only the top meter of the land thaws in the summer, due to the frozen land, water cannot drain downward and therefore the land gets waterlogged, these factors are only suitable for small shrubs and mosses to grow ​ West Coast Forest - heavy rainfall and mild climate create the conditions for excellent tree growth, large old growth forest, trees that measure a meter in width and can reach 50 meters in height, can be found here ​ Cordilleran - has varied vegetation due to the wide range of temperatures, rainfall, soils, and elevations throughout the region, traditionally characterized by coniferous trees that turn into small shrubs and mosses with higher altitudes ​ Boreal and Taiga Forest - Largest Vegetation region in Canada which consists mostly of coniferous trees, the soil in this region is very acidic due to the falling of the needles makes the region unsuitable for agriculture ​ Grasslands - native grasses, cactus and sagebrush are well suited to the very dry conditions brought on by lack of rain and high levels of evaporation, trees have difficulty growing because there is not enough water ​ Mixed Forest - is a transition zone between the boreal forest of the north and the deciduous forest of the south, has both deciduous and coniferous trees ​ Used often in the logging industry due to the vast number of trees available, today little of the forest remains in the southern part of the region because of farming, lumbering, urban developments and transportation routes ​ Deciduous Forest - only in southwestern Ontario and consists of Maples and other leafy trees, very little of this region remains due to clean cutting for farming and urban development, long and hot summers combines with relatively mild winters and plenty precipitation create ideal conditions for hardwood trees such as maple, beech, hickory ash and black walnut Landform Regions of Canada  ​ Western Cordillera - These high, jagged mountains formed when layers of sedimentary rock were raised during the collision of the North American and Pacific plates during the late Mesozoic and early Cenosoiz era. The steep slopes of the Western Cordillera are ideal for skiing and snowboarding ​ Interior Plains - The plains were formed by layers of sedimentary bedrock during the Palezoic era, where the area was covered in warm, shallow seas. At the end of the last glacial period, the bedrock was buried by deep deposits developed into the rich, fertile soils perfect for the growing of grains such as wheat, barley and canola ​ Canadian Shield - this is the oldest of the landform regions, dating back over 4 billion years and covering almost half of Canada’s land area. Billions of years of erosion have worn down the range of high volcanic mountains. Today the Canadian Shield is important as a source of metallic minerals such as gold, silver, copper and nickel ​ Great Lakes - St. Lawrence Lowlands - this is the smallest but most populated region in Canada. In the Great Lakes Lowlands, glacial erosion carved the lakes into sedimentary rock that was laid down during the Palezoic era. The retreating glaciers deposited large volumes of sands, silts and gravels as flat plain and rolling hills. In the St. Lawrence Lowlands, the flat land on either side of the river was formed as sedimentary rock on the seafloor. A valley was created and when the land dropped at the end of the ice age, the area was flooded. Sediments provided fertile soils ideal for agriculture ​ Hudson Bay and Arctic Lowlands - Located around the shores of Hudson Bay and the Arctic Islands, this region is a low flat wetland area. It was covered in ice during the last ice age, and then flooded when the ice retreated. Frozen for most of the year, the area is a poorly drained plain covered in bogs. ​ Appalachian Highlands - these mountains formed nearly 300 million years ago, when the Eurasian plate collided with North America. Layers of sedimentary rock were initially folded into high mountains that were then rounded by millions of years of erosion by running water and glacial ice. Along the Atlantic coast of Canada, these mountains drop right into the ocean, creating sheltered bays, inlets, and deep harbours ideal for ocean going ships. ​ Innuitian Mountains - Consisting mostly of folded sedimentary rock layers raised up during the mid-Mesozoic era, this mountain range in Canada’s Far North is covered in glacial ice and snow caps. The slopes are barren because of the cold, harsh climate of the region. Determinism vs. Possibilism ​ Social Determinism - Environmental determinism refers to the theory that the environment causes social development or that the environment influences people,  Determinants suggest that the natural environment influences the human response. ​ Possibilism - possibilism refers to the concept that the natural environment places strains on the human activity BUT Humans can adapt by modifying or creating technological advances in response, a Possibilist suggest that people can adjust or overcome an environment Economic Sectors ​ Industry is the sector of the economy concerned with the production and distribution of goods and services and the development of new knowledge ​ Primary - this level is industry is also referred to as EXTRACTION, these industries are those that extract or produce raw materials including: Mining, Forestry, Fishing, Agriculture, These building blocks from which useful items can be made ​ Secondary - this level of industry is also referred to as MANUFACTURING, these industries are those that change raw materials into usable products through processing and manufacturing, these products are not suitable for use by other businesses for export or sale to domestic consumers, the terms “value added” is sometimes applied to processed and manufactured items since the change from a raw material to a usable product increases the value, Includes: Manufacturing, Engineering, Chemical, Clothing and Brewing Industries ​ Tertiary - This level of industry is also referred to as SERVICE INDUSTRIES, These industries are those that provide essential services and support to allow other levels of industry to function. Primary and Secondary Industries cannot function without this level so the term “spin off” industry is sometimes applied: Finance, Utilities, education, retail, housing and medical ​ Quaternary - This level of industry is also referred to as INFORMATION INDUSTRIES. These industries are those for the creation and transfer of information, including research and training. This level has seen a dramatic growth as a result of advancements in technology and electronic display and transmission of information. It includes: app creations, software development, experimentations for curing diseases and inquiry based research ​ Quinary - These industries are those that control industrial and government decision-making processes. Including executives and management, Bureaucrats, elected officials in government and policies and laws are made and implemented at this level Basic vs. Non-basic jobs ​ Basic Industries - Provide the money needed to support the local economy (money comes from from outside the area)  ​ Non-Basic Industries - do not bring new money into the local economy. They recycle the money that is already there. Developed, Newly Industrialised, Developing Countries ​ Developed Countries - countries with a highly developed economy. Its citizens have high incomes, abundant food, good housing, and can afford many luxuries. Highest standard of living. Have developed increasingly well in the service sector. Have well developed services such as education healthcare, banking, transportation and information technology ​ Newly Industrialized - Country in the transition stage between developing and developed countries. Typically have rapidly growing economies. Economies were once based on agriculture and over time different manufacturing industries became established. As the industrial base grows, the service industry will also increase in size and help improve standard of living. ​ Developing Countries - Countries with a poorly developed economy. Its citizens have low incomes, shortages of food, poor housing and cannot afford luxuries. Sometimes called “less developed”. Economies primarily dominated by primary industry. Service sector is poorly developed since most people have little money to spend on services. Frequently have to rely on foreign aid. More developed and lower developed countries ​ Developed Countries: Canada, USA and Australia ​ Newly Industrialized: Brazil, South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore ​ Developing Countries: Many Countries in Africa Lewis Model ​ This model was developed in the 1970s ​ This model assumes that the workforce is divided into two sectors: agriculture or traditional sector A and manufacturing or modern sector referred to as sector M. ​ The thought is that structural change means M grows relative to A as every year people save part of income and invest the savings in capital for the M sector. As capital (wealth) grows workers in M get more productive. Thus more workers are hired in M. These workers come from A. As capital grows over time M sector expands and A declines. ​ Development=growing M, declining A. ​ In order for this to happen, capital accumulation is key. Usually growth of M would push up wages, as food gets scarce and land per remaining worker in A is growing. However, Lewis assumes that initially there are many redundant workers in A –  “surplus labor”. Thus, workers in A share what they produce and wage stays constant as long as the M sector is small compared to A sector. ​ Main results of the Lewis Model 1. The manufacturing sector uses capital accumulation to “pull” the economy into modernity 2. The agricultural sector provides the labor supply by shedding its “surplus” labor A possible example ​ An example may be China from 1980-2005, where hundreds of millions migrated from poor rural inland areas to work in the factories on the coast. ​ The labor supply was vast and wages stayed low despite the accelerating labor demand. Eventually, Chinese wages started to rise as it ​ exhausted the surplus labor. ​ Possible issues with the Lewis Model: ​ -Due to few, but high-paying jobs, many people have migrated to cities and end in separated low-wage and/or high-risk informal labor ​ -The agricultural sector may have no surplus workers and therefore no surplus labour to move into the manufacturing sector. If this is the case and the manufacturing sector still hires them, (a) food production falls, raising food prices ​ -Lewis model and “Modernization theory” may focus too much on the M sector. In the developed countries historically, new technology freed labour for industry. This stabilized food supply and wages. ​ Improving agricultural productivity may be as important as improving M productivity Rostow’s Model ​ Industrialization, urbanization, and trade is still seen by many as a roadmap for a country's development. Singapore is one of the best examples of a country that grew in this way. ​ When it became independent in 1965, it did not seem to have any exceptional prospects for growth. ​ However, it industrialized early, developing profitable manufacturing and high-tech industries. ​ Singapore is now highly urbanized, with a higher per-capita income than many European countries. ​ Rostow developed his theories on the basis of a western capitalist model, and is therefore limited by this cold war bias. ​ The trickle down approach of investment from the core is an example of this bias. ​ Supporting local markets and development is a common critique. ​ These are the stages of Growth: 1.​ Traditional Society - Subsistence, barter, agriculture  2.​ Transitional Stage - Specialization, Surpluses, infrastructure 3.​ Take Off - Industrialization, growing investment, regional growth, political change 4.​ Drive to Maturity - Diversification, innovation, less reliance on imports, investment 5.​ High Mass Consumption - consumer oriented, durable goods, flourish, service sector become dominant Comparative advantage vs. Absolute advantage ​ Absolute Advantage is the ability of an actor to produce more of a good or service than a competitor. ​ Comparative Advantage is the ability of an actor to produce a good or service for a lower opportunity cost than a competitor. Staple Thesis ​ A theory asserting that the export of natural resources, or staples, from Canada to more advanced economies has a pervasive impact on the economy as well as on the social and political systems. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration ​ Most Migrants move only a short distance ​ There is a process of absorption, whereby people immediately surrounding a rapidly growing town move into it and the gaps they leave are filled by migrants from more distant areas, and so on until the attractive force (pull factors) is spent ​ There is a process of dispersion, which is the inverse of absorption ​ Each migration flow produces a compensating counter-flow ​ Long distance migrants go to one of the great centers of commerce and industry ​ Natives of towns are less migratory that those from rural areas ​ Females are more migratory than males ​ Economic factors are the main cause of migration Immigration ​ To move permanently to another country other than one’s native country ​ An immigrant is a person who moves to a new country with the intention of settling there Push Factors & Pull Factors ​ Push Factors are reasons people want to leave their country and move to another one because of the following: Unemployment, Poverty, Lack of services and support, War, High Crime Rates, Poor Climate ​ Pull Factors are reasons and/or opportunities that attract a person to a country because of the following: Potential for employment, Greater Wealth, Better services and support, Political security, Low crime rates and more attractive climate Multiculturalism ​ Immigration contributes to Canada’s multicultural society ​ Culture: shared set of beliefs, values, costumes, behaviors, and artifacts that member of a society use to cope with their world and each other ​ Transmitted from generation to generation through learning ​ Traits are acquired from the group Cultural mosaic vs. Melting pot ​ Cultural Mosaic: -​ Canada is made up of a multicultural society -​ The population of society is made up of many different cultures -​ Canada is known as a mixed salad of people or a cultural mosaic -​ There is a mix of ethnic groups in different parts of Canada. -​ Canada invites all ethnic groups to practice their culture and encourages traditional beliefs ​ Melting Pot: -​ Canada is unlike the United States, for example, which consider themselves a melting pot -​ A melting pot is a metaphor for a society where many different types of people blend together as one. Refugee ​ This type of immigrant is someone who leaves their country due to fear of cruel or inhumane treatment ​ This could be caused by political opinion, nationality, belonging to a group or religion Skilled Workers ​ Economic immigrants are accepted because they can contribute to Canada’s economy when they arrive ​ There are four classes or programs in this category:  ​ Skilled worker class, skilled trade class, Canadian experience class, but start up, a visa ​ Temporary workers are allowed into Canada for 2 reasons, 1. To fill labour shortages in certain fields and 2. To allow people with extraordinary talents to contribute to Canada’s Economy and Culture Family Reintegration ​ Involves reuniting families ​ Citizens of permanent residents of Canada are allowed to sponsor close family member who want to move to Canada ​ The Sponsor is financially responsible for the person Point System ​ The point system is part of the criteria Canada used to decide who to accept as immigrants. It applies only to economic immigrants ​ Applicants hoping to immigrate to Canada must earn 67 points on the Immigration Point System ​ These Points are distributed in the following categories: Age, Education, Language ability, Work Experience, and Adaptability Dependency Load ​ The dependency load is the part of the population that needs to be supported. It is made up of 2 components: the 0-14 age group and the 65+ age group Baby Boom ​ Babies who were born following World War II ​ World War II ended in 1945 and soldiers returned to their families ​ The Baby Boomers as of 2024 are between the ages of 58 to 78 years old because they were born between the years of 1946-1965 ​ During both World Wars, Canada population extremely decreased because of the number of casualties ​ Because of this large decrease in population, the Canadian Government encouraged men and women to increase the number of children in their families Demographic Transition Model ​ A model used to describe the change from a high birth rate and high death rate demographic pattern, to a low birth rate and low death rate demographic pattern as time moves forward into the future of population trends around the world Population Pyramids ​ Is a graph that depicts population distribution by age and gender ​ Population Pyramids are considered special graphs because they are plotted and read differently than any other graph ​ Population pyramids are a series of horizontal bar graphs of male and female populations, which are back to back and have groups in the middle of the 2 genders ​ The figures on the population pyramid graph is only in percent ​ Stage 1 - Expanding -​ High Birth rate - large % of children -​ High infant mortality - high number of deaths in children -​ Not education on use of birth control -​ Very poor medical care -​ Low life expectancy - malnutrition, poor water and disease -​ Small percentage of older adults -​ Underdeveloped Nation (Pre-Industrial) - No country is still age this stage ​ Stage 2 - Expanding -​ Very rapid increase in population -​ Death rate declines rapidly (sanitation and disease control) -​ Fertility rate remains high -​ Infant mortality declines -​ Many young people -​ High birth rate -​ Understanding of Germ Theory -​ Developing Nation - Ethiopia ​ Stage 3 - Stationary -​ Moderate life expectancy -​ Stable birth rate -​ Moderate Infant Mortality - infant deaths -​ Zero to little birth control - needs to be more educated on uses of birth control -​ Medical care is somewhat good -​ Newly-Industrialized - South Korea and China ​ Stage 4 - Contracting -​ High life expectancy -​ Very good medical care -​ Low birth rate -​ Educated on the use of birth control -​ Low Infant Mortality - Infant Deaths -​ Developed Nation - Canada and United States  ​ Stage 5 -​ High Life expectancy -​ Very low birth rate -​ Educated in birth control -​ Computerized Economy -​ Very Good Medical Care -​ Very high % of older adults -​ Very low infant mortality -​ Developed Nation - Japan and Germany Demographic Trap ​ The term "demographic trap" is used by some demographers to describe a situation where stage 2 persists because "falling living standards reinforce the prevailing high fertility, which in turn reinforces the decline in living standards." Population Density ​ The number of persons per square kilometer - Some places have more people in a certain are that other places ​ Population Density = Number of People ​ ​ ​ Size of area Urban Sprawl ​ The rapid spread of development outward from the inner city. Urban Development Models (Concentric, Hoyt, Multiple Nuclei) Concentric Zone Model: ​ Central Business district (CBD, where non-residential activities are concentrated) ​ Zone of transition ​ Zone of independent workers homes (immigrants, those who do not have a family yet) ​ Zone of better residence (suburbia, newer and more spackles homes for middle class families) ​ Commuters Zone Sector Model: ​ Central business district ​ Transportation and industry ​ Low class residential ​ Middle- class residential ​ High class residential Multiple Nuclei Model: ​ Central Business district ​ Wholesale, light manufacturing  ​ Low class residential ​ High class residential ​ Heavy manufacturing ​ Outlying business district ​ Residential suburb ​ Industrial suburb Bid Rent theory ​ The bid rent theory is a geographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand for real estate change as the distance from the Central Business District increases Christaller’s Central Place Theory ​ A spatial theory in human/urban geography that attempts to explain the reasons behind the: 1.​ Distribution pattern (of a settlement) 2.​ Size (of a settlement) 3.​ Number of cities/towns in relation to one another ​ Settlement: city, town, village ​ Threshold: the minimum number of people needed to support a service. ​ Range: the average maximum distance people will be willing to travel to purchase a good or service. This will vary depending on the good or service (ie. Specialty vs. simple item) Weber’s Factors for Industrial Location ​ An industry will choose a location based on a cost analysis of transport, labor and other needs ​ Weight - products can be classified as bulk forming and bulk reducing ​ Distance - when the product is industry it is harder to ship and therefore more costly. Small pieces are relatively easy to ship relative to the assembled products ​ Labour - labour costs are crucial to the success of the firm. Location will deviate in order to have access to cheap skilled labour ​ Other - Other factors such as water, electricity and the perishable nature of the product can be important for the location of specific products Types of Land Use (Residential, Transportation, Institutional & Public Buildings, Green Space, Industrial, Commercial) ​ Transportation -​ About ⅓ of urban land is used for transportation. -​ it is important for cities to have effective transportation -​ Two types of transportation systems for: People and Goods  -​ All transportation systems consist of 3 parts 1) Vehicles: Trains, trucks, cars, bicycles, buses, subways and etc. 2) Travel Paths: rail lines, and road systems such as expressways, arterials, collectors and local roads. 3) Terminal Facilities: subways stations, rail yards, airports, ports, parking lots and garages ​ Residential -​ Most important characteristic of residential land-use is density -​ Residential Density - the number of housing units per hectare -​ Two Factors responsible are: 1. Land Cost: Building vertical cities 2. Age of the area -​ Residential Density can Influence: lifestyle, transportation & microclimates ​ Commercial Land Use -​ About 5% of cities land is used for commercial activities -​ Buying and selling goods, providing services -​ Use a relatively small area of land, but provide many jobs, and bring money into the community -​ Neighborhoods stores and plazas - variety stores, banks, super markers, hairdressers, barbers, and post-office house outlets -​ Community Shopping Centres - all of the above plus clothing and shoe stores, travel agents, jewelry stores, insurance company offices, and fast food outlets -​ Regional Shopping Centres - all of the above plus major department stores, book stores, movie theaters and specialized stores -​ Central Business District - all of the above plus specialized stores and services, such as stores selling designer clothes and unique items, concert halls, and professional sports venues. -​ Big Box stores and Shopping Areas in suburban areas - very large national and international chain stores and fast food and sit down chain restaurants ​ Industrial Land Use -​ About 6% of cities land is used for industrial purposes -​ Manufacturing use to be the most important part of industrial land use ​ Institutional and Public Buildings -​ About 10% used for schools, hospitals, public buildings, places of worship tend to be spread throughout a city -​ College and University buildings, government buildings, tend to be clustered ​ Open Space & Recreational Land Use (Green Space) -​ About 7% of urban land use -​ Include parkland, golf courses, land for utilities as well as vacant land High order vs. Low order goods ​ Low Order Goods - goods and services that are purchased frequently: generally inexpensive  ​ High Order Goods - goods and services that are purchased infrequently: tend to be specialized and often costly Grid pattern vs. Garden Pattern ​ Grid patterns refer to the systematic layout of streets and blocks in urban areas, characterized by a network of intersecting lines that create a rectangular or square framework. Zoning ​ The result of a detailed planning process that specifies exactly what land uses are allowed in each part of municipality Greenbelt ​ Areas of undeveloped land around an area ​ Rings of open space where there can be no construction ​ Found in Canada and Europe ​ Limits Urban Sprawl and Suburbanization Greenfield vs. Brownfield development ​ Brownfield Development - an abandoned industrial property that has the potential to be a hazardous waste, or pollutant. Removal can improve health & safety of the community/environment and beautify the landscape. Renovation can create housing/commercial space and revive older communities ​ Greenfield - The term greenfield refers to buildings constructed on fields that were, literally, green. The word green is also synonymous with the word new, which may allude to new construction projects by companies. These companies are generally multinational corporations that begin a new venture from the ground up, especially in areas where there are no facilities that already exist. PART A: Multiple Choice - 50 marks PART B:True or False - 20 marks PART C: Short Answers - 10 marks PART D: Short Answers - 15 marks Total - 95 marks