General Chemistry 1 Reviewer (Midterms) PDF

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 REVIEWER (Midterms) By: JuniMar Enterprises HISTORY OF MATTER STATES OF MATTER Solid - Has a definite SHAPE and VOLUME - has particles that are packed closely together and usually arranged in a regular pattern. Liquid - Has d...

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 REVIEWER (Midterms) By: JuniMar Enterprises HISTORY OF MATTER STATES OF MATTER Solid - Has a definite SHAPE and VOLUME - has particles that are packed closely together and usually arranged in a regular pattern. Liquid - Has definite VOLUME, but has no fixed shape - Has particles that can move and are in close contact Gas - Has NO definite volume and shape - Has particles that are widely separated Plasma - Has no definite volume and shape - Has charged particles that are widely separated Bose Einstein Condensate - a state of matter that is typically formed when a gas of bosons at very low densities is cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero (−273.15 °C or −459.67 °F or 0 K). PHASE CHANGES PROPERTIES OF MATTER 1. Physical Properties Physical Property describes a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured. Ex: Melting of ice, changing of color, boiling of water Can be classified as either intensive or extensive Intensive Properties Properties that DO NOT depend on the quantity of matter. Ex: Density, Viscosity, Melting Point, Boiling Point Extensive Properties Properties that DO depend on the quantity of matter. Ex: Length, Width, Height, Weight 2. Chemical Properties Chemical Property describes the ability of a substance to change into a new substance/substances. It can only be observed when a chemical change occurs CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER Pure Substance - Characterized by an unchanging or specific composition. - There are two types of pure substances; elements and compounds. Elements - The simplest type of matter that is composed of only ONE KIND of atom. - Ex: Carbon is composed of carbon atoms; Oxygen is composed of oxygen atoms. Compounds - Composed of two or more elements combined chemically in definite proportions. - Ex: carbon monoxide (CO), water (H2O). Additional Info: Water can be separated into hydrogen and oxygen through a process called electrolysis. Mixture - Composed of different pure substances that are physically combined in variable proportions. Heterogeneous Mixtures - Mixtures whose components are not evenly distributed in the sample and can thus be physically identified. - Ex: Ice in soda, Cereal in milk, Soil, Oil and vinegar Homogeneous Mixtures - Mixtures that exist in a single phase; means that the appearance, properties, and composition are uniform throughout a sample. - Ex: Perfume, Blood Plasma, Vodka, Steel Solution - A homogenous mixture of substances and can be physically combined in varying proportions. - Ex: Water and Salt. Solutions are made up of two parts. The solute is the substance that gets dissolved. The solvent is present in larger quantities than the solute. METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES Magnets - Used to remove magnetic solids from the nonmagnetic components of a mixture. Decantation - Used to separate liquid and heavy insoluble solids. - Ex: A sand-water mixture is carried out by gently pouring out the water out of the container after the sand has settled at the bottom of the container. Evaporation - Done by continuously heating the solution, leaving behind the solid component of the mixture. Sublimation - Used to separate volatile solids from nonvolatile substances. - Ex: Separating Iodine from sand by heating the mixture, causing the iodine to vaporize and then re-solidify on a cool surface.  Filtration - A solid-liquid mixture is allowed to pass through a filter, trapping the solid in it. Distillation - Separates miscible liquids of different boiling points such as ethyl alcohol and water. Chromatography - Used to separate components of different solubility levels using a moving and a stationary fluid. ATOMS, IONS AND MOLECULES 1. Atoms - fundamental building blocks of matter, consisting of the smallest indivisible units of an element that retain the chemical properties of that element. - Ex: Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Helium (He), etc. 2. Ions - electrically charged particles that are formed when atoms or molecules gain or lose electrons. - Ex: Chloride ion (Cl-), Magnesium ion (Mg2+), Potassium ion (K+) 3. Molecules - a group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together, forming a stable and electrically neutral entity. - Ex: hydrogen peroxide molecule (H2O2), ammonia molecule (NH3) 4. Isotopes - atoms of the same chemical element that have the same number of protons (and thus the same chemical properties) but differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei. - Ex: Carbon-14 (C14), Hydrogen-2 (2H), Uranium-235, (235U) FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF CHEMISTRY 1. Law of Conservation of Mass - It states that in a closed system, the total mass of substances remains constant over time, regardless of the physical or chemical changes that occur within that system. 2. Law of Constant Composition - It states that a given chemical compound always contains the same elements in the same fixed, definite proportions by mass,  regardless of the source of the compound or its method of preparation. 3. Law of Multiple Proportion - It states that a chemical compound is always composed of the same elements in the same fixed proportions by mass, regardless of the quantity or source of the compound. DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY Matter is made up of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms of the same element are identical and are different from those of other elements. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a certain whole number ratio. Atoms rearrange only during a chemical reaction to form a new compound. TIMELINE: Discovery of electron by J.J Thompson (1897) Oil drop experiment by Robert Milikan (1909-1917) Gold foil experiment by Ernest Rutherford (1911) Jumping of energy by Niels Bohr (1913) Discovery of atomic number by Henry Moseley (1913-1914) Discovery of neutron by James Chadwick (1932) NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS Definition of Terms: Monatomic Ions - Ions that consist of only ONE ATOM. Diatomic Ions - Ions that consist of TWO ATOMS. - The seven diatomic ions consist of hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, oxygen, iodine, chlorine, and bromine. - Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer Polyatomic Ions - ions composed of TWO OR MORE ATOMS that are covalently bonded together and carry an electric charge. 1. METAL IONS - When a metal ion is shown, it will always be labeled as the same as its element. Ex: Na+ → sodium K+ → potassium Mg2+ → magnesium Ca+ → calcium List of Metal (the elements highlighted in color) 2. TRANSITION METALS Classical Method - Lower charge → ends in -ous - Higher charge → ends in -ic Ex: Fe2+ → ferrous Fe3+ → ferric Stock Method - Roman numerals indicate the charge and its written inside a parenthesis “(x)” Ex: Fe2+ → iron (II) Fe3+ → iron (III)  List of Transition Metals (highlighted in red) 3. NON-METAL IONS Monatomic ions are attached with the suffix “-ide” Ex: Br → bromide S → sulfide Nonmetal Polyatomic Anions (negative charged) - Lesser oxygen atoms → ends with -ite - More oxygen atoms → ends with -ate Ex: NO2- → nitrite NO3- → nitrate List of Non-Metals (highlighted in green) 4. HALOGENS - Are halogens with a different number of oxygen ions which can form different polyatomic ions depending on how many variations it has with the amount of oxygen ions. Such as chlorine for example, with four variations with oxygen. Ex: ClO- → hypochlorite ClO2 - → chlorite - ClO3 → chlorate ClO4 - → perchlorate 5. TERNARY POLYATOMIC IONS - They are composed of 3 elements - One type of ternary ion formed, use the prefix “bi-” Ex: HCO3- → bicarbonate - If there are several types of ions formed with hydrogen, greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of hydrogen atoms present. Ex: H2PO4- → dihydrogen phosphate 6. HYDRATED SALTS - Compounds that have water molecules (H2O) incorporated in their structure. - Greek prefix is added to the term hydrate to indicate the number of water molecules. Ex: CuSO4 · 5H2O → copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate - Without water molecules, salts are considered anhydrous. Ex: CuSO4 → anhydrous copper (II) sulfate 7. ACIDS - Compounds that can give off hydrogen ions when dissolved in water (aq) - The anion name is prefixed with “hydro-”, suffixed with “-ic” and added the term acid Ex: HCl(g) hydrogen chloride → HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid NAMING COVALENT COMPOUNDS Covalent compounds are made up of two nonmetal atoms RULES: 1. Name the nonmetal furthest to the left on the periodic table by its element name 2. The other nonmetal to the right is written with the suffix “-ide” 3. Use the greek prefixes to indicate the number of atoms of the element. 4. If the nonmetal to the left only has one atom or is “mono” it is understood and should not be written anymore. Ex: Nitrogen Monoxide → NO Sulfur Hexabromide → SBr6 Silicon Dioxide → SiO2 Carbon Tetrachloride → CCl4 NOTE: To make things easier, we highly recommend you utilize the periodic table and learn how to read it to ensure that you will be able to indicate the correct naming techniques for the rest of the compounds mentioned. I also recommend just to keep practicing, just like math, the more you try the more you get better at it. Sources I recommend using for further studying: The Organic Chemistry Tutor (YouTube) Ptable.com (a website for determining compounds, isotopes and electrons/charges) GenChem Book