States and Properties of Matter

States of Matter

• Solid: Definite shape and volume, tightly packed particles in a regular pattern.
• Liquid: Definite volume but no fixed shape, particles can move and are close together.
• Gas: No definite volume or shape, widely separated particles.
• Plasma: No definite volume or shape, widely separated charged particles.
• Bose-Einstein Condensate: Formed when a gas of bosons at low density is cooled to near absolute zero.

Phases Changes

• Melting: Solid to liquid.
• Freezing: Liquid to solid.
• Vaporization: Liquid to gas.
• Condensation: Gas to liquid.
• Sublimation: Solid to gas.
• Deposition: Gas to solid.

Properties of Matter

• Physical Properties: Observable or measurable characteristics of a substance. (e.g., melting ice, changing color, boiling water)
  • Intensive Properties: Independent of the quantity of matter. (e.g., density, viscosity, melting point, boiling point)
  • Extensive Properties: Dependent on the quantity of matter. (e.g., length, width, height, weight)
• Chemical Properties: Ability of a substance to change into a new substance. (e.g., rusting, burning, decomposition)

Classifications of Matter

• Pure Substance: Unchanging composition, includes elements and compounds.
  • Elements: Simplest type of matter, composed of one kind of atom. (e.g., carbon, oxygen)
  • Compounds: Two or more elements chemically combined in definite proportions. (e.g., carbon monoxide, water)
• Mixture: Different pure substances physically combined in variable proportions.
  • Heterogeneous Mixture: Components are not evenly distributed. (e.g., ice in soda, cereal in milk)
  • Homogeneous Mixture: Uniform appearance, properties, and composition throughout. (e.g., perfume, blood plasma)
  • Solution: Homogeneous mixture of substances with varying proportions. (e.g., water and salt)
    • Solute: Substance that gets dissolved.
    • Solvent: Substance present in larger quantities than the solute.

Methods of Separating Mixtures

• Magnets: Removing magnetic solids from nonmagnetic components.
• Decantation: Separating liquid from heavy, insoluble solids.
• Evaporation: Heating a solution to evaporate the liquid, leaving behind the solid.
• Sublimation: Separating volatile solids from nonvolatile substances by heating.
• Filtration: Separating solid from liquid using a filter.
• Distillation: Separating miscible liquids with different boiling points.
• Chromatography: Separating components with different solubilities using a mobile and stationary fluid.

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules

• Atom: Fundamental building block of matter, the smallest indivisible unit of an element retaining its chemical properties. (e.g., hydrogen, oxygen, helium)
• Ion: Electrically charged particle formed when atoms or molecules gain or lose electrons. (e.g., chloride ion, magnesium ion)
• Molecule: Group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together forming a stable, neutral entity. (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, ammonia)
• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. (e.g., Carbon-14, Hydrogen-2)

Fundamental Laws of Chemistry

• Law of Conservation of Mass: Total mass of substances remains constant in a closed system, regardless of changes.
• Law of Constant Composition: A chemical compound always contains the same elements in fixed proportions by mass.
• Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in a simple ratio.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

• Matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
• Atoms of the same element are identical, but different from other elements.
• Compounds form when atoms of different elements combine in whole number ratios.
• Atoms rearrange during chemical reactions to form new compounds.

Timeline:

• Discovery of electron (J.J. Thompson, 1897)
• Oil drop experiment (Robert Milikan, 1909-1917)
• Gold foil experiment (Ernest Rutherford, 1911)
• Energy levels in atoms (Niels Bohr, 1913)
• Discovery of atomic number (Henry Moseley, 1913-1914)
• Discovery of neutron (James Chadwick, 1932)

Naming Ionic Compounds

• Monatomic Ions: Ions consisting of one atom. (e.g., sodium ion, chloride ion)
• Diatomic Ions: Ions consisting of two atoms. (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine)
• Polyatomic Ions: Ions composed of two or more atoms with a charge. (e.g., sulfate ion, phosphate ion)

Naming Rules for Ionic Compounds

• Metal ions: Named as the element. (e.g., Na+ → sodium)
• Transition Metals:
  • Classical Method: Lower charge ends in "-ous"; Higher charge ends in "-ic". (e.g., Fe2+ → ferrous, Fe3+ → ferric)
  • Stock Method: Roman numerals indicate the charge in parenthesis. (e.g., Fe2+ → iron (II), Fe3+ → iron (III))
• Non-metal ions: Suffix "-ide" added to the element name for monatomic ions. (e.g, Br → bromide, S → sulfide)
• Non-metal Polyatomic Anions:
  • -ite: Lesser oxygen atoms. (e.g., NO2- → nitrite)
  • -ate: More oxygen atoms. (e.g., NO3- → nitrate)
• Halogens: Use prefixes to indicate the number of oxygen atoms. (e.g., ClO- → hypochlorite, ClO2- → chlorite, ClO3- → chlorate, ClO4- → perchlorate)
• Ternary Polyatomic Ions: Composed of three elements.
  • "bi-": Indicates the presence of hydrogen. (e.g., HCO3- → bicarbonate)
  • Greek prefixes: Used to indicate the number of hydrogen atoms. (e.g., H2PO4- → dihydrogen phosphate)
• Hydrated Salts: Compounds with water molecules incorporated in their structure.
  • Greek prefixes: Indicate the number of water molecules. (e.g., CuSO4 · 5H2O → copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate)
• Anhydrous Salts: Salts without water molecules. (e.g., CuSO4 → anhydrous copper (II) sulfate)
• Acids: Compounds that release hydrogen ions when dissolved in water.
  • Anion name: Prefixed with "hydro-" and suffixed with "-ic" then added "acid" after the name. (e.g., HCl(aq) → hydrochloric acid)

Naming Covalent Compounds

• Covalent Compounds: Formed by two nonmetal atoms. (e.g., carbon dioxide, water)

Naming Rules for Covalent Compounds

• Prefixes: Used to indicate the number of each element. (mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta-, octa-, nona-, deca-)
• -ide: Suffix added to the second element's name (e.g., carbon dioxide, sulfur trioxide)
• First element: Usually appears first and does not have a prefix if there is only one atom.
• Second element: Suffix "-ide" is added to the element's name.