Anatomy & Physiology: Introduction PDF

Anatomy & Physiology: f Introduction GINA C. JAMIL,RRT Meaning of Anatomy & Physiology ► Anatomy - describes the structures of the body -- their scientific names, composition, location, and associated structures. Anatomy (“a cutt...

Anatomy & Physiology: f Introduction GINA C. JAMIL,RRT Meaning of Anatomy & Physiology ► Anatomy - describes the structures of the body -- their scientific names, composition, location, and associated structures. Anatomy (“a cutting open”) is a plan or map of the body. ► Physiology - studies the function of each structure, individually and in combination with other structures (-ology = “the study of”). The study of anatomy is divided into 2 major fields: Gross anatomy is the study of large visible structures Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that are too small to see, such as cells and molecules. Gross anatomy divisions: Surface anatomy describes surface forms and marks Regional anatomy describes the organization of specific areas of the body such as the head or hand. Systemic anatomy describes groups of organs that function together for a single purpose. Gross anatomy divisions: Developmental anatomy describes the structural changes in an organism from fertilized egg to maturity. Embryology is the anatomical study of early development. Clinical anatomy describes various medical specialties, including medical anatomy (changes that occur during illness), and radiographic anatomy (structures that appear in scans and x-rays). Microscopic anatomy divisions: Cytology - the study of cells and their structures. Histology - the study of tissues and their structures. Physiology has many specialties. The 4 basic divisions are: Cell physiology, including chemical and molecular processes within and between cells. Special physiology, the study of specific organs such as the heart. Systemic physiology, the cooperative functions of all the organs in an organ system. Pathological physiology, the effects of diseases on organs and organ systems.  Levels of Organization ► The levels of organization of living things, from smallest to largest, are: Atoms, the smallest functional units of matter. Molecules, active chemicals. Organelles, specialized structures within a cell. Cells, the smallest living units. Tissues, a group of similar cells that work together. Organs, two or more tissue types working together. Organ systems, two or more organs working together. Organism, a single individual, including all of the above. Level of Organization Homeostasis The foundation of all physiology is homeostasis (“staying the same”). When the body does not function within its normal range, organ systems malfunction, resulting in disease. (*) As the environment around or within us changes, physiological systems work together to maintain a stable internal environment, the condition of homeostasis. Systems monitor and adjust the volume and composition of body fluids, and keep body temperature within normal limits. Two general mechanisms regulate homeostasis: Autoregulation or intrinsic regulation, an automatic response by a cell, tissue, organ or organ system to a change in its environment. Extrinsic regulation, changes regulated by the nervous system or endocrine system. The nervous system responds to external stimuli (e.g. a hot stove) with short-term nerve responses. The endocrine system responds to internal conditions with long-term chemical controls -- hormones. A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of 3 parts: ► Receptors, sensors that respond to a stimulus. ► The control center, receives information from sensors and sends out commands. ► Effectors, the cell or organ that responds to the control center.  Negative and Positive Feedback ► When the response of an effector opposes the original stimulus, that is called negative feedback because it negates the stimulus. ► An example of negative feedback is the temperature thermostat in your home. ► Temperature sensors turn the air conditioner off and on to maintain air temperature within a specific, limited range. ► In the opposite response, positive feedback, the effector adds to the initial stimulus instead of negating it, speeding up the process. ► Positive feedback is useful in emergencies, such as speeding up blood clotting ► (*) A state of equilibrium exists when opposing forces are in balance. When homeostasis is threatened, physiological systems attempt to restore balance. Failure to maintain internal conditions in a state of equilibrium within normal limits results in disease or death. Systems of the human body (11) The Integumentary System The Skeletal System Muscular System Nervous System Endocrine System Cardiovascular System Lymphatic & Immune System Respiratory System Digestive System Urinary System Reproductive System Anatomical Body Position ► The international standard anatomical position is the position that provides a reference point for describing the structures of the human body. ► In this position, the body is standing erect with good posture and the face is looking directly forward in a normal manner. ► The feet are together about 6 inches apart, flat on the floor and the toes pointing forward. ► The arms are down at the sides with the palms turned forward with the thumb side of the hand away from the body. ► When the body is lying face down in the anatomical position, this is called the prone position. When the body is lying face up, this is called the supine position. Anatomical position Anatomical Position Supine And Prone Anatomical Directions Direction Description Example Towards the front of the The sternum lies anterior to Anterior (or ventral) body (in front of). the heart. Towards the back of the The heart lies posterior the Posterior (or dorsal) body (behind). sternum. The heart lies superior to Superior (or cranial) Above (on top of). the diaphragm. The diaphragm lies inferior Inferior (or caudal) Below (underneath). to the heart. Away from the mid line of The lungs lie lateral to the Lateral the body (towards the heart. sides). Towards the mid line of the The heart lies medial to the Medial body (towards the middle). lungs. Away from the body surface The heart is deep to the Deep (towards the inner body). sternum. Towards the external The sternum is superficial Superficial surface of the body. to the heart. Nearer to the trunk of the The shoulder is proximal to Proximal body. the elbow. Furthest from the trunk of The elbow is distal to the Distal the body. shoulder.  Body Landmarks The cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is further differentiated into the: ► cranium (skull), ► facies (face), frons (forehead), ► oculus (eye area), ► auris (ear), ► bucca (cheek), ► nausus (nose), ► oris (mouth), ► and mentis (chin). ► The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region. Body Landmarks ► On the trunk of the body, the chest is referred to as the thoracic area. ► The shoulder in general is the acromial, while the curve of the shoulder is the deltoid. ► The back as a general area is the dorsum or dorsal area, and the lower back as the lumbus or lumbar region. ► The shoulder blades are the scapular area and the breastbone is the sternal region. Body Landmarks ► The abdominal area is the region between the chest and the pelvis. ► The breast is called the mamma or mammary, the armpit as the axilla and axillary, and the navel as the umbilicus and umbilical. ► The pelvis is the lower torso, between the abdomen and the thighs. ► The groins, where the thigh joins the trunk, are the inguen and inguinal area. Body Landmarks ► The entire arm is referred to as the brachium and brachial, the front of the elbow as the antecubitis and antecubital, ► the back of the elbow as the olecranon or olecranal, ► the forearm as the antebrachium and antebrachial, the wrist as the carpus and carpal area, ► the hand as the manus and manual, ► the palm as the palma and palmar, ► the thumb as the pollex, ► and the fingers as the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal. ► The buttocks are the gluteus or gluteal region and the pubic area is the pubis.  Body Landmarks ► Anatomists divide the lower limb into the thigh, the part of the limb between the hip and the knee, ► and the leg, which refers only to the area of the limb between the knee and the ankle. ► The thigh is the femur and the femoral region. ► The kneecap is the patella and patellar while the back of the knee is the popliteus and popliteal area.  Body Landmarks ► The leg (between the knee and the ankle) is the crus and crural area, the outside of the leg is the peroneal area, and the calf is the sura and sural region. ► The ankle is the tarsus and tarsal, and the heel is the calcaneus or calcaneal. ► The foot is the pes and pedal region, and the sole of the foot the planta and plantar. ► As with the fingers, the toes are also called the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal area. ► The big toe is referred to as the hallux. Regions ► The body is split up into two main areas, the axial and appendicular regions. ► The axial region refers to the head, vertebral column and trunk, and the appendicular region refers to the pelvic girdles and the upper and lower limbs. ► Each area is further divided into descriptive regions. Axial regions Description (pertaining to) Cephalic Head Frontal Forehead Facial Face Occipital Back of the head Orbital Eye cavity Buccal Cheek Thoracic Chest Sternal Sternum Umbilical Navel (belly button) Inguinal Groin Pubic Mons pubis (pubic bone) Genital Reproductive organs Perineal Perineum Dorsum Back Vertebral Spinal column Cervical Neck Thoracic Middle of the back Lumbar Lower back Sacral Sacrum Appendicular regions Description (pertaining to) Upper limb Pectoral Chest Clavicular Clavicles Acromial Acromion of the shoulder Scapular Scapula Interscapular Between the two scapulae Axillary Armpit Brachial Arm Antebrachial Forearm Cubital Elbow Carpal Wrist Digits Fingers Pollicis Thumb Palmar Palm of the hand Lower Limb Gluteal Buttocks Coxal Hip Femoral Thigh Patellar Front of the knee Popliteal Back of the knee Crural Leg Tarsal Ankle Calcaneal Heel Pedal Foot Plantar Sole of the foot The anatomical position figure is theoretically divided into three distinct planes: ► 1.) The frontal or coronal plane which separates the body into the front and back; anterior to posterior; dorsal to ventral. ► 2.) The transverse plane which separates the body into top and bottom; upper and lower; superior and inferior. ► 3.) The midsagittal plane, also known as the median plane, which separates the body into right and left halves.  Body cavities ► The body contains two main cavities, dorsal and ventral, that house and protect the internal organs. These cavities are subdivided to further distinguish location. ► The dorsal body cavity is the space within the cranium (skull) and the spinal canal, which is surrounded by the vertebrae. The fluid filled space inside the cranium is called the cranial cavity, and it contains the brain. The spinal cavity is the space that encloses the spinal cord and extends from the cranial cavity to the base of the spine.  Body cavities ► The ventral body cavity contains the organs in the chest and abdomen. It is further divided by the diaphragm into the superior thoracic cavity and the inferior abdominopelvic cavity.  Body cavities ► The thoracic cavity contains the ► lungs, ► heart, ► the lower esophagus, ► the thymus gland, ► and other organs of the cardiovascular, respiratory, and lymphatic systems. ► This cavity is subdivided into the right pleural cavity of the right lung, the left pleural cavity of the left lung, and the mediastinum, between the pleural cavities, which houses the trachea, esophagus, thymus, heart, and vessels connected to the heart. ► The mediastinum contains the pericardial cavity, which is the area surrounding the heart.  Body cavities ► The abdominopelvic cavity is often divided into the superior abdominal and inferior pelvic cavities. ► The abdominal cavity contains the digestive organs and glands, namely ► the liver, ► gallbladder, ► spleen, ► kidneys, ► pancreas, ► stomach, ► small intestine ► and the majority of the large intestine. ► The pelvic cavity is surrounded by the pelvis and contains the inferior portion of the large intestine, bladder, uterine tubes, and reproductive organs. Regions of the abdomen and pelvis ► The abdominopelvic quadrants evenly divide the space of the torso below the diaphragm into four. They are referred to simply by location: the right upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, and left lower quadrant. ► The nine divisions (sometimes also called nine quadrants, though the word 'quadrant' itself means division into four equal parts) of the abdominopelvic region are smaller than the four abdominopelvic quadrants and allow more detailed 4 Quadrants of the body 9 Regions of the Body  Type of Movements 1. ABDUCTION: a movement away from the midline of the body. Abduction also refers to the spreading apart of fingers or toes 2. ADDUCTION: a movement towards the middle of the body. It also refers to movements of the fingers or toes when they are drawn closer together 3. CIRCUMDUCTION: a complex movement which combines abduction, adduction, extension, and flexion so that a limb, for example, follows a cone-shaped path. Circumduction incorporates all the movements of ball and socket joints (e.g. hips and shoulder) 4. DORSIFLEXION: a movement of the foot which brings the toes closer to the shin 5. EXTENSION: straightening of a joint so that two bones move further apart  Type of Movements 6. FLEXION: bending a joint so that two bones move closer together INVERSION: turning the sole of the foot inwards 7. PLANTAR FLEXION: a movement of the foot which takes the toes further away from the shin; pointing the toes downwards 8. PRONATION: turning the wrist so that the palm faces downwards (or an inward rotation of the foot) 9. ROTATION: movement around the axis of a bone or body part. Movement towards the midline of the body is called medial (or internal) rotation; movement away from the midline is called lateral (or external) rotation 10. SUPINATION: turning the palm upwards (or an internal rotation of the foot).  The End... God Bless Us All... Take care! ☺