Theories to Explain Exercise Motivation and Physical Inactivity: Ways of Expanding Our Current Theoretical Perspective - PDF

OPINION published: 21 May 2019...

OPINION published: 21 May 2019 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01147 Theories to Explain Exercise Motivation and Physical Inactivity: Ways of Expanding Our Current Theoretical Perspective Ralf Brand 1* and Boris Cheval 2,3 1 Sport and Exercise Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany, 2 Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland, 3 Laboratory for the Study of Emotion Elicitation and Expression (E3Lab), Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland Keywords: exercise, motivation, affect, automaticity, physical inactivity Physical inactivity and lack of exercise are major societal health problems. Most experts in exercise psychology, if asked how to support people in growing their motivation for physical activity Edited by: and exercise, would probably recommend shifting the decisional balance by creating a belief that Roberta Antonini Philippe, there are more benefits to be had from becoming active than barriers to be overcome, bolstering Institut des sciences du sport de l’Université de Lausanne their appraisals of self-efficacy, and creating social environments that promote perceptions of (ISSUL), Switzerland autonomy, competence, and relatedness (e.g., Biddle and Vergeer, 2019). These recommendations are evidence-based (e.g., Teixeira et al., 2012; Young et al., 2014). Many empirical studies show Reviewed by: Emmanouil Georgiadis, that people who are sufficiently physically active differ in these variables from those who are less University of Suffolk, United Kingdom active. There are also longitudinal and intervention studies demonstrating that changing these *Correspondence: motivational variables makes behavior change more likely. Ralf Brand On the other hand, there is growing skepticism as to whether epidemic physical inactivity [email protected] can be effectively addressed through interventions developed on the basis of the few cognitive- behavioral theories (e.g., Conn et al., 2011) that have been the mainstays in exercise psychology Specialty section: for decades (Rhodes et al., 2019). For example, in the context of a recent congress symposium This article was submitted to organized to debate this issue, two renowned researchers explained their conviction and challenged Movement Science and Sport each other with good arguments: One position—that interventions based on these theories provide Psychology, promising approaches in some contexts, but have proven to be ineffective by and large (Weed, a section of the journal 2018)—contrasted sharply with the other—that results achieved from interventions based on these Frontiers in Psychology cognitive-behavioral theories could have been much stronger if only the available evidence had been Received: 14 March 2019 put into practice more consistently (Hagger, 2018). Other authors have argued that the current Accepted: 01 May 2019 situation is forcing a critical reevaluation of cognitive-behavioral theories, since all of them are Published: 21 May 2019 based on the common assumption that behavioral decisions are driven mainly by the rational Citation: evaluation of information (and dramatically neglect the importance of affective and automatic Brand R and Cheval B (2019) Theories to Explain Exercise Motivation and processes; e.g., Ekkekakis, 2017). Physical Inactivity: Ways of Expanding We share the concerns that have been expressed. In this text, we will outline our view, focusing Our Current Theoretical Perspective. on one common element of the most widely used cognitive-behavioral theories of motivation. We Front. Psychol. 10:1147. will argue that this one element obscures alternative approaches that could lead to more physical doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01147 activity and exercise in everyday life. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1147 Brand and Cheval Theories to Explain Exercise Motivation THE UNFAVORABLE COMMONALITY OF AFFECTIVE-REFLECTIVE THEORY OF COGNITIVE THEORIES OF PHYSICAL PHYSICAL INACTIVITY AND EXERCISE ACTIVITY AND EXERCISE Affective-Reflective Theory (ART) of physical inactivity and A framework for classifying theories of exercise and physical exercise (Brand and Ekkekakis, 2018) is a dual-process theory, activity behavior suggests organizing them into five classes which assumes that stimuli (e.g., a friend’s reminder that you (Biddle et al., 2007). Belief-attitude theories focus on the intended to go for a run, or remembering that you had planned cognitive antecedents of behavioral intentions, defined as to go for a run) trigger automatic associations and a resulting the effort someone is prepared to invest toward performing automatic affective valuation of exercise (type-1 process). An a target behavior. Well-known examples are the theory of automatic affective valuation is the unattended assignment of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and the theory of positive (association with pleasure) or negative (association planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985). Competence-based theories with displeasure) value to a stimulus, either as the result of are exemplified primarily by Bandura’s construct of self- repeated exercise-related emotional experiences mediated by efficacy, which is defined as an individual’s judgment of his cognitive appraisals (e.g., pride, embarrassment) or as a result or her “capabilities to organize and execute courses of action of repeated experiences of core affective reactions to stimuli required to attain designated types of performances” (Bandura, (e.g., sense of physical reinvigoration, bodily discomfort). The 1986, p. 391). Control-based theories refer to the notion that automatic affective valuation serves as the basis for a controlled, humans have the intrinsic desire or goal to experience oneself reflective evaluation (type-2 process), which can follow if self- as the initiator and regulator of one’s actions. The currently control resources are available. The reflective evaluation draws on highly influential self-determination theory attributes this propositions about exercise and physical inactivity, derived from desire to a basic psychological need for autonomy (Deci previous experience and mental simulation (e.g., anticipation and Ryan, 1985). Stage models, e.g., the transtheoretical of the affective consequence of actions). Higher-level cognitive model (Prochaska and DiClemente, 1983), conceptualize operations, such as deliberative reasoning about one’s needs behavioral change as a process that brings one closer to the and values (Deci and Ryan, 1985) may also contribute to this envisaged goal. Hybrid models, such as the health action process process. The automatic affective valuation is connected to an approach (Schwarzer, 1992), combine the stage concept with action impulse (approach or avoidance), whereas the controlled motivational variables, to predict intention, with the addition response can result in action plans. of post-decisional variables (e.g., implementation intention; The ART aims to explain and predict behavior in situations in Gollwitzer, 1999). which people either remain in a state of physical inactivity or All these models have one core attribute in common, initiate action. It assumes that experience, feelings, and thoughts stemming from origins of cognitive theorizing in psychology: connected with exercise influence whether someone would be They all emphasize the importance of imagined end states willing to undergo physical strain similar to that previously (behaviors or goals) and the energization of action resulting from experienced during exercise. Related to the topic of this opinion them to such an extent that the experience of situated factors article, the ART posits that, in the face of an exercise-related (e.g., momentary affect linked to the situation; Ekkekakis, 2017) stimulus, one’s negative affective valuation of exercise will act is overlooked. as a restraining force that may counteract any positive cognitive This notion that a better understanding of ongoing behavior motivational drives toward action (or, on the other hand, if the requires both situated factors and the cognitive projections affective valuation is positive, it will present a driving force and that direct behavior was proposed by Lewin (1951). He thus make it more likely that the person will change his or her conceptualized every specific state of behavior as either the current state of physical inactivity). result of equal but opposite forces, which hold the person in his or her current state, or under the influence of relatively stronger driving forces, which direct the person away from the THEORY OF ENERGETIC current state. COST MINIMIZATION This theoretical idea had limited impact on research on motivation however. Probably because the cognitive The theory of energetic cost minimization (TECM; Cheval revolution in psychology, which began soon after et al., 2018a,b) assumes that biomechanically efficient behaviors Lewin’s early death (in 1947) fascinated so many have a rewarding value. It refers to evidence on the multiple psychologists. With the advent of the contention that neuro-behavioral adaptations that have contributed to the people are able to engage in forethought, the separate minimization of metabolic costs in the course of human conceptualization of momentary restraining forces action and during movement (Srinivasan and Ruina, 2006). For was lost. example, individuals automatically adapt their step frequency in Two recent theories in exercise psychology tie in with real time to optimize energy costs (Selinger et al., 2015) and learn considerations about situated restraining forces, albeit in to minimize the physical effort required to obtain specific rewards different ways. We will briefly describe the relevant aspects of (Skvortsova et al., 2014). This automatic behavioral tendency these theories and outline ideas on how future research could of effort optimization is theorized to be a neurobiologically yield alternative intervention approaches for public health. anchored process. Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 May 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 1147 Brand and Cheval Theories to Explain Exercise Motivation The TECM assumes that situational factors (such as one’s importance of situated processes that can hold the individual internal physiological state or external physical environment) back in that particular moment, has been overlooked. However, may either incentivize the behavioral opportunities to minimize in our view, such processes represent crucial components or lead the individual to effectively temper the tendency to of theoretical explanations of both physical activity (and reduce energetic cost (Cheval et al., 2019). The availability of exercise) and physical inactivity. The two highlighted theoretical cognitive resources can weaken the automatic tendency toward approaches, the ART and the TECM, are examples that effort optimization (Cheval et al., 2018c, 2019). In sum, the theory illustrate directions toward which the field of exercise psychology conceptualizes the evolutionary inclination to avoid unnecessary can evolve. physical exertion as a restraining force that may hinder the ability of individuals to effectively implement their conscious intention HANDS-ON RECOMMENDATIONS FOR to be physically active. REAL-LIFE INTERVENTIONS MAJOR SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES Since both theories are relatively new, high-quality studies that BETWEEN THE TWO THEORIES would provide direct evidence for the effectiveness of derived intervention methods do not yet exist. Nevertheless, we take the The ART is a psychological theory that relates what we know liberty of providing a few suggestions for practice, because these about people’s acute affective responses to exercise (Ekkekakis will certainly not have a negative effect on the effectiveness of et al., 2013) and how such experiences can influence the odds standard intervention methods (Howlett et al., 2019). of future exercise (Rhodes et al., 2009; Rhodes and Kates, 2015). With regard to the ART, we like to emphasize that Simply put, many people (especially untrained individuals behavioral interventions (i.e., those that are not only and e.g., overweight people) experience negative affect during conversation-based) should be delivered by well-trained exercise and this may have a significant negative effect on instructors with expertise in tailored exercise load control. further exercise engagement. Habitual physical inactivity Convincing exercise novices with the help of supportive and exercise avoidance are explained by the ART as learned verbal communication may be a field for psychologists. reactions; they originate from an automatic negative affective Facilitating experiences through exercise is profession of exercise valuation of exercise, constituting an important restraining specialists however. force. Interventions should, therefore, focus on minimizing With regard to the TECM, it is assumed that the behavioral unpleasant experiences while exercising, and/or should tendency to minimize can be most effectively counteracted facilitate consistently pleasant experiences during exercise, by strengthening the individual’s cognitive resources and self- so that positive automatic affective valuations of exercise control capacity. Feeling relaxed, energetic and focused should can develop. help to more effectively implement plans and intentions. Creating The TECM has its roots in evolutionary behavioral biology conditions that maximize pleasure during physical activity and and posits an ever-present tendency (a restraining force) exercise may play an additional role in counteracting the in human behavior toward efficiency in anticipation of tendency to reduce energetic cost. potentially exhausting physical activity as well as during Generally speaking, we also believe that public policy physical performance. In the light of this theory, with should endorse open, safe and well-maintained infrastructure to regard to possible intervention approaches, people should be promote access to places for walking, cycling and other physical aware that this tendency exists. Most generally, executive activities, and the architecture of buildings should encourage cognitive functioning, e.g., the capacity for self-control should physical activity throughout the day (e.g., access to stairs, be strengthened. In addition, psychological training (Sheeran active work-stations). A multi-faceted approach is warranted et al., 2013) through (for example) evaluative conditioning, to effectively address the pandemic of physical inactivity in attentional bias modification, or approach-avoidance training everyday life. could be useful, in order to change individuals’ automatic reactions to physical activity-related stimuli and reduce the AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS restraining force. All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and CONCLUSION intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. In our opinion, the fact that most research in exercise psychology pertaining to how people can be motivated to be more physically FUNDING active is considered through the prism of a few paradigmatically similar cognitivist theories, is problematic. 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(2018). “Interventions based on behavioral theory work in the real world,” in Abstract Book for the ISBNPA 2018 Annual Meeting in Hong Copyright © 2019 Brand and Cheval. This is an open-access article distributed Kong (International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity), under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, 22–23. Retrieved from: https://www.isbnpa.org/files/articles/2018/07/04/102/ distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original attachments/5b3d0ebde1d22.pdf author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication Howlett, N., Trivedi, D., Troop, N. A., and Chater, A. M. (2019). Are physical in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, activity interventions for healthy inactive adults effective in promotingbehavior distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. 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