Flashcard Info Test #1 - PSYC 100B PDF

Flashcard info test #1 - PSYC 100B Cross-sectional study -​ Comparing people of different ages at the same time -​ Less expensive and less difficult to use -​ Limitation: cohort effect (the way people are affected by their coming from a particular time in history) Longitudinal stud...

Flashcard info test #1 - PSYC 100B Cross-sectional study -​ Comparing people of different ages at the same time -​ Less expensive and less difficult to use -​ Limitation: cohort effect (the way people are affected by their coming from a particular time in history) Longitudinal study -​ Repeatedly test same participants as they age -​ Limitations: expensive, difficult to retain participants Sequential study -​ Repeatedly test many age cohorts as they age Prenatal development -​ Impacted by genes and environment. At 6 months fetus responds to sound. Baby communication methods -​ Gaze, suck, turn heads -​ Can habituate Wired to socialize -​ 1 hour old babies gaze longer at an image that looks like a face Jean Piaget -​ cognitive development Lawrence Kohlberg -​ moral development Erik Erikson -​ psychosocial development End of history illusion -​ When people are asked how they have changed in the last decade and will change in the next they can recognize they have changes in the last but dont think they will change much in the future Language learning in the womb  -​ Immediately after birth they respond to their mothers voice -​ Recognized a fake word they were repeatedly exposed to in the womb -​ Babies tend to cry in their mothers tongue (rising tones of french vs falling tones of german) Teratogens -​ Agents such as viruses and drugs can damage an embryo or fetus Teratogen epigenetic effect -​ Damage occurs because teratogens leave chemical marks on DNA that switches genes abnormally on and off Startle reflex and grasping reflex -​ Arms and legs spring out quickly followed by fist clenching and loud crying Habituation -​ A decrease in responding with repeated stimulation -​ This allows us to “ask” infants what they see and remember Brain development -​ Most of the brain cells you will ever have are there when you are born but your nervous system is immature -​ Neural networks have a growth spurt -​ 3-6 frontal lobes grow quickly - require a lot of energy Association areas (thinking, memory and language) -​ were the last to develop - as they did mental abilities surge Adrenal hormones -​ allow 10s of billions of synapses formed and organized Synaptic pruning -​ Shuts down unused neural links -​ Use it or lose it Babies sleeping on back -​ Later crawling but walking stays normal Neural network development in babies  -​ Skills like walking, toilet training and other physical skills cannot be learned until the neural networks are there Massage and exercise in babies -​ Can accelerate walking Infantile amnesia -​ Immature brain regions, lack of retrieval cues, unclear self concept -​ Rapid neuron growth disrupts the circuits that stored old memories -​ We were able to learn and make memories but they are pushed to subconscious Infant learning skills -​ Can learn and remember skills - procedural memories Two track mind -​ what the conscious mind does not know and cannot express in words the nervous system and unconscious mind somehow remember -​ Traces of forgotten childhood languages Cognition -​ All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating Piaget core idea -​ Our intellectual progression reflects an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences - the brain builds schemas to do this Schemas -​ Organized patterns of thought and action -​ Internal frameworks that guide our interactions. Concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences Assimilation -​ incorporating new experiences in terms of our current schemas or understandings - having a simple schema for dog a toddler might call all 4 legged creatures dogs Accommodation -​ adjusting/modifying an existing schema or creating a new one Piaget Sensorimotor stage - 0-2  -​ Babies take in the world through senses and actions “live in the present” -​ Children can think earlier than he thought Object permanence -​ The awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived -​ Piaget thought this happened at 8 months - modern researchers think it happens gradually Baby physics - expectation violation -​ Infants look longer and explore impossible scenes - they do this because it violates expectations Baby math -​ They stare longer when number of objects is incorrect Preoperational stage (2 - 6/7) -​ Able to represent schemas and feelings with words and images. They use intuition but not yet logic and abstraction. Visual models to represent other places - 3 year olds can use mental operations to figure out where the real object was hidden after seeing where in a model. -​ End of stage they replace egocentrism with theory of mind Conservation -​ The principle that properties (mass, volume, number) remains the same despite changes in form -​ Before age 6 children lack this - one of the major indicators of leaving the preoperational stage Pretend play -​ Symbolic thinking and pretend play emerge earlier than piaget thought -​ When shown where something was hidden in a model 3 year olds could find it in the real room Egocentrism -​ Preschoolers have difficulty perceiving things from another's point of view -​ Kids who block your view of the tv assume you can see what they see Concrete operational stage (7- 11) -​ Given physical materials they begin to grasp operations such as conservation -​ Piaget thought there was no abstract thinking until formal operational but some basic level happens as early as 7 Formal operational stage (12 - adulthood) -​ Reasoning expands from purely concrete (actual experience) to encompass abstract thinking (imagined realities and symbols) -​ They can assess hypothetical propositions and deduce consequences (if this then that) -​ Systematic reasoning which piaget called formal operational thinking is now within their grasp Piaget vs todays research -​ We see development as more continuous -​ Children show some mental abilities earlier than he thought -​ Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition than he thought -​ Culture influences cognitive development Lev vygotsky -​ Child mind growth through interaction with social environment (vs piaget: physical environment) Scaffold -​ Giving children new words and mentoring them provide a temporary scaffold from which children can step to higher levels of thinking -​ Children learn best when something is not too easy or hard Vygotsky language -​ Language provides the building blocks for thinking. By 7 children think in words and use words to solve problems. Children rely on inner speech. -​ Talking to themselves helps children control behaviour, emotions and master new skills Theory of mind -​ Ability to infer others mental states -​ By 3-4.5 children realize others can hold false beliefs Autism -​ Difficulty reflecting on others and their own state of mind - late or never develop theory of mind -​ Less likely to use I and me Baby social development -​ Preference for familiar faces and voices -​ Make noises when given caregivers attention  -​ By 4.5 months they can differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar languages Stranger anxiety -​ happens around 8 months, soon after object permanence develops (before this they dont notice or quickly forget if a caregiver leaves). Babies cry and reach for familiar caregivers when seeing strangers because they can't fit the new face into their existing memory (schemas), causing distress. Origins of attachment -​ Cling to a caregiver when they are frightened - not because they become attached to those who nourish them but because they like body contact (harlow's monkey experiment - preferred a soft cloth mother than a wire one with food) Familiarity -​ Attachments based on familiarity form during a critical period Critical period -​ An optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development Imprinting -​ Rigid attachment process - ducks. Children dont do this -​ They do become attached to what they've known - mere exposure fosters fondness Secure attachment -​ Babies with sensitive, responsive mothers (who notice and respond appropriately) develop secure attachments. Insecure attachment (two kinds - anxious and avoidant) -​ Insensitive unresponsive parents Heredity and attachment -​ Genes affect temperament and temperament affects attachment style Basic trust (erikson securely attached children) -​ A sense that the world is predictable and reliable. Attributed not environment/temperament but to early parenting Lifelong attitude of trust rather than fear from sensitive loving parents Anxious attachment  -​ People constantly crave acceptance but remain vigilant to signs of possible rejection - skilled lie detectors and poker players Avoidant attachment -​ In which people experience discomfort getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance from others. Constant concern of romantic rejection leading people to cling to partners. Decreases commitment and increases conflict Attachment deprivation effects -​ Lower intelligence, reduced brain development, abnormal stress responses, 4 times the rate of ADHD, twice as likely to commit suicide. Increased activity in threat detecting areas of the brain when shown angry face/speech ​ Abuse breeds abuse -​ 9 of 16 female monkeys who were abused became abusive parents vs none of the ones raised without abuse Developing a self concept -​ Happens by age 12 - understanding and assessment of who they are Self awareness -​ Children pass mirror test by 15-18 months Parenting styles -​ Combination of 2 traits: how responsive and how demanding they are Authoritarian -​ Impose rules and expect obedience without question Permissive -​ Unrestrained - make few demands set few limits and use little punishment Neglectful -​ Uninvolved - neither demanding nor responsive. Careless, inattentive and do not seek a close relationship with their children Authoritative -​ Confrontive - demanding and responsive. Exert control by setting riles but encourage open discussion and allow exceptions Myelin -​ Fatty tissue that forms around axons and speeds neurotransmission enables better communication with other brain regions -​ Improved judgement, impulse control and long term planning -​ Puberty accelerates myelination Puberty brain development -​ Frontal lobe still lags behind development of limbic system (emotions) This helps explain impulsiveness risky behaviors and emotional storms -​ Egocentrism endures Personal fable -​ Teens tend to believe that they are unique and special and what happens to most people would never happen to them Kohlberg morality -​ children's moral judgements build on their cognitive development Kohlberg preconventional morality -​ Self-interest - obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards Kohlberg conventional morality -​ Uphold laws/rules to gain social approval or maintain social order Kohlberg postconventional morality -​ Actions reflex belief in basic rights and self defined ethical principles. We may place others comfort above our own Kohlberg morality limitations -​ Culturally limited - appears mostly among people from large individualist societies that give priority to personal goals -​ Male focused Jonathan haidt moral intuition -​ Morality is rooted in moral intuitions - quick gut feelings. The mind makes moral judgments in the way it makes aesthetic judgements. The desire to punish is mostly driven by emotions not by reason Delayed gratification  -​ Those who learn this skill are more socially responsible, academically successful and productive -​ Marshmallow experiment - those who waited a few minutes to get 2 had higher college completion rates, income and less addiction problems Erikson social development -​ Each life stage has its own psychosocial task Erikson young children (3-6) social development -​ Initiative vs guilt -​ helps children learn to be independent and take responsibility Erikson school age children (6-12) social development -​ industry vs. inferiority -​ Success leads to Competence Erikson adolescent (12-18) social development -​ Identity vs role confusion Minority identity -​ Identity often forms around their distinctiveness Collectivist culture identity -​ Teach kids who they are rather than encourage them to decide on their own Adolescent parent child conflict - male vs female child -​ Conflicts with sons tend to be about behaviour -​ Conflicts with daughters tend to be about relationships Emerging adulthood -​ New term for 18-mid 20s - adolescents are now taking more time to establish themselves as adults (less likely to work for pay, drive or have romantic relationships) Emerging adulthood 5 central features -​ Identity exploration, instability, self focus, feeling “in between,” age of possibilities -​ IIFSA Well being across the lifespan -​ Stays stable Negative emotions and age -​ Negative emotions decrease as we age -​ Older adults change negative states faster than young adults - older adults more likely to feel mixed emotions Socioemotional selectivity theory -​ As people age they shift from prioritizing information seeking goals to emotion focused goals -​ Older adults regulate emotional experience better to enhance emotional well being Physical decline begins in -​ Mid 20s very gradually Telomeres -​ Tips of chromosomes -​ Wear down and shorten - aging cells doe without being replaced with perfect genetic replicas -​ Decline accelerated by smoking, obesity and stress. -​ Breastfed children have longer ones than those who were abused or bullied Death deferral phenomenon -​ People can postpone dying when there is a significant event they want to experience, such as a holiday, birthday, or major milestone. vision and age -​ Pupil shrinks and lens becomes less transparent - a 65 year old receives ⅓ of the light of a 20 y/o Health and age -​ People care less about what their bodies look like and more about how they function as they age Aging brain -​ Decreased reaction time, capacity to remember names and ability to solve perceptual puzzles -​ Impulsiveness returns as frontal lobes atrophy -​ Brain size shrinks by 5% by 80 Aging and memory  -​ Ability to recall new information declines but ability to recognize new information did not (as long as there are cues old people can remember just as well) -​ Memory regions of brain begin to atrophy. Blood-brain barrier break down in the hippocampus Young vs old memory tasks -​ Old - both sides of brain active. Young - mainly left side. -​ Still plasticity which compensates for what it loses by reorganizing and recruiting neural networks Brain training -​ controversial as skills don't transfer but are marketed like they are general and lasting improvements of mind and brain Exercise and aging -​ Exercise slows aging -​ Maintains telomeres and slows alzheimers Neurogenesis -​ Development of new brain cells and neural connections thanks to increased oxygen and nutrient flow -​ Exercise stimulates it Prospective memory -​ Ability to remember to perform an action or recall an intention in the future -​ Younger people are better but older people have good prospective memory if they have a trigger (sticky notes) Remembering meaningless vs meaningful info -​ Older people better at meaningful due to rich web of existing knowledge but younger people are better at meaningless Terminal decline -​ Cognitive decline accelerated in the last 3-4 years of life -​ People in this stage are more driven to connect socially than learn Hearing loss effects -​ Social isolation, depression and accelerated mental decline Dementia (neurocognitive disorder)  -​ Stroke, brain tumor alcohol, and smoking all can cause this Alzheimers -​ Caused by deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine -​ Memory deteriorates then reasoning -​ Protein filaments in the cell body and clumps of free floating proteins mess up synaptic connections Alzheimers early signs -​ Diminishing smell and wobbly walking Intelligence -​ The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations Spearman: General intelligence (g factor) -​ One general intelligence that is at the heart of all intelligent behavior -​ He noted that those who score high in one area tend to score higher than average in other areas Thurstone: 7 clusters of primary mental abilities -​ No scale of general aptitude -​ Still evidence of a g factor - overlap between cluster scores The Cattell-Horn-Carroll Intelligence Theory -​ Simplified thurstone's abilities into two factors -​ Affirmed a general intellectual ability factor as wella s Gf and Gc Fluid intelligence (Gf) -​ Ability to reason speedily and abstractly Crystallized intelligence (Gc) -​ Accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and applied skills Gardners 8 intelligences -​ Eight relatively independent intelligences -​ Influences educators beliefs that children have different learning styles (visual or auditory) Savant syndrome  -​ Brilliant in one area (like memory or math) but score low on intelligence tests and may have limited or no language capability -​ Usually found in people with autism -​ 4 in 5 are male Sternberg's Three Intelligences -​ Agrees with gardner that there is more than academic intelligence but proposes 3 not 8 reliably measure intelligences Sternberg Analytical (academic problem-solving) intelligence -​ Assessed by intelligence tests with well defined problems having a single answer -​ Predict school grades well and vocational success modestly Sternberg Creative intelligence -​ Demonstrated in innovative smarts -​ Ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas Sternberg Practical intelligence -​ Required for everyday tasks that may be poorly defined and may have multiple solutions General intelligence -​ Does exist - predicts higher incomes, performance on tasks and jobs, extremely high scores predict exceptional achievements Emotional intelligence 4 abilities -​ 1. Perceiving emotions 2. Understanding emotions 3. Managing emotions 4. Using emotions -​ PUMU Gardner and emotional intelligence -​ Should respect it but it is not intelligence Achievement tests -​ Intended to reflect what you have learned Aptitude tests -​ Intended to predict what you will be able to learn Francis galton - presuming hereditary genius -​ Thought that you could measure natural ability and encourage intelligent people to mate Alfred binet -​ Developed intelligence tests to measure children's mental age so they could get extra help if needed -​ His test was not intended to measure inborn intelligence Mental age -​ The level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age (average 8 year old has a mental age of 8) Lewis Terman - stanford binet test -​ Developed a test at stanford using some of binets questions called the stanford-binet -​ German psychologist william stern derived the term IQ from this Iq -​ the persons mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100 -​ Original worked well for children but not adults because mental age doesnt really matter in adulthood Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) -​ Most widely used individual intelligence test today -​ Created a version for children and preschool children -​ Overall intelligence score but also separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed, Three principles of test construction -​ Standardized, reliable, valid Standardization -​ # of correct answers on their own mean nothing without a basis for comparison -​ New tests are given to a representative sample and this becomes the basis for future comparison Reliability -​ A reliable test, when retaken, gives consistent scores -​ The higher the correlation between scores the higher the reliability Split-half reliability (internal consistency) -​ Dividing the test into 2 equal halves and assessing consistency of scores Test-retest reliability -​ Using same test on 2 occasions to measure consistency in results Interjudge reliability -​ Different raters/scorers fo the same test should come to similar conclusions Validity -​ Ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure -​ A test can be reliable without being valid Content validity -​ Extend test measures a particular behaviour or trait Predictive validity -​ Can test predict a particular behaviour or trait Standardization -​ Administration of a test to a large, representative sample of people under uniform conditions for the purpose of establishing norms IQ and academic achievement -​ Correlations weaker as education level gets higher due to restricted range of students at the higher level (when its mainly high IQ people in a program other factors are more responsible for variation) Does a bigger brain make you smarter? -​ Since the stone age 20,000 years ago our brains have shrunk by 10% but we have become smarter -​ Size is less important than connectedness - less dendrites means the brain can fire the right sequence faster. More dramatic Gyri and sulci mean areas are closer together and people are more intelligent Arborization -​ Number and shape of dendrites -​ Less is more - efficiency is better than quantity Flynn effect -​ the observed rise in IQ scores over generations, likely due to improvements in education, nutrition, and problem-solving experiences. Too fast to be evolution of intelligence Intellectual disability -​ A neurodevelopmental disorder that is apparent before age 18 -​ Must have a test score of 70 or below The high extreme of iq -​ Lewis terman studied children with IQs over 135 -​ When restudied over the next 7 decades most of them had attained high levels of education - much higher rate of PhD’s Grouping students by aptitude -​ sometimes creates a self fulfilling prophecy -​ Children are each different and better at different things - educating them as if they were all alike is naive Iq stability or change -​ Stability - at age 4 scores begin to predict adult scores, by age 11 iq stays the same Wisdom across the lifespan -​ Increases with age in the US -​ In Japan there was no relationship between age and wisdom Does Intelligence leads to longer and healthier lives? -​ Yes - unknown why, many theories Decisions and age -​ Older people have better social reasoning and decisions are less distorted by emotions Intelligence and culture -​ Different cultures value different skills - standardized IQ tests are not reflective of these differences and lead to erroneous conclusions about intelligence Heritability -​ The portion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes -​ The extent to which test score variation within a group can be attributed to genetics is between 50-80% -​ Heritability never applies to an individual - only to why people in a group differ from one another Twins and intelligence -​ Even when adopted by two different families their intelligence test scores are very similar  -​ When raised together their scores are as similar as the same person taking the test twice -​ Also have similar talents Polygenetic intelligence -​ Things like intelligence, height and sexual orientation involve many genes so are pretty much impossible to artificially select embryos that are smarted Epigenetics -​ How your behaviours and environment can cause changes in gene expression -​ Small genetic advantages can trigger social experiences that multiply our original skills -​ E.g. if your genes make you better at sports you're more likely to play more sports and be much better than the average person Reverse epigenetic interaction -​ Poor environmental conditions can depress genetic abilities which snowball Wide environment variation -​ Frequent among children of less educated parents - environmental differences are more predictive of iq -​ Unlikely an enriched environment can amplify normal development Mindset: Entity theorists -​ Traits are fixed - fixed mindset -​ Everyone is a mix of both fixed and growth Mindset: Incremental theorists -​ Traits are changeable - growth mindset -​ Everyone is a mix of both fixed and growth Growth mindset - Carol dweck -​ To reach your potential, believe in your ability to learn and apply yourself with sustained effort. abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort, learning, and persistence, rather than being fixed traits. -​ Does not alter inborn intelligence but can make you more resilient when faced with problems Best kind of praise -​ Praise effort instead of ability - encourages growth mindset and attributing success to hard work Gender intelligence differences -​ Men overestimate their intelligence - intelligence is equal -​ More men at the top and bottom of iq Steven pinker evolutionary perspective -​ Biology affects gender difference in life priorities - women have greater interest in people vs men in things -​ Observable across cultures, stable, and influences by prenatal hormones Society and gender -​ Less gender gaps in gender equal countries - expectations and opportunities construct gender by shaping interest and abilities Group difference in heritable traits -​ Entirely environmental - explains group differences in iq scores -​ Differences between groups is much smaller than between two individuals from two people of the same group Scientific definition of bias -​ whether a test predicts future behavior for all groups of test takers, not just some. In this meaning aptitude tests in the US are not biased Everyday language bias conception -​ biased if it is unfair (if test scores will be influenced by the test takers cultural experiences) - In this sense iq tests may be unfair - because they measure the test takers developed abilities which reflect, in part, their education and experiences Test takers expectations -​ Given math test to equally capable men and women, men did better - except when women had been led to expect that women usually do as well as men on the test Stereotype threat -​ occurs when someone is concerned about confirming a negative stereotype about their identity. It can cause anxiety, stress, and cognitive overload, which can negatively impact performance Motivation -​ Need or desire that energizes behaviour and directs it toward a goal Instinct theory of motivation  -​ Fixed pattern of behaviour not acquired by learning; rooted in genes and the body Intrinsic motivation -​ Intrinsically motivating behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring -​ E.g. autonomy, mastery, purpose Extrinsic motivation -​ Extrinsically motivated behaviours are performed in order to receive something from others -​ E.g. compensation, punishment, reward Overjustification effect -​ Intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given Verbal praise (extrinsic) and motivation -​ Verbal praise may increase intrinsic motivation - opposite of overjustification effect Collectivist Culture and motivation -​ common to do things for your family members because the emphasis is on the group and what is best for the entire group rather than what is best for any individual Physical vs verbal reinforcement -​ Tangible (money) rewards have more negative effect on intrinsic motivation than intangible (praise) Expectation and motivation -​ Expectation of the extrinsic motivator decreases intrinsic motivation but if there is no expectation then intrinsic motivation persists Educational motivation -​ Students more likely to experience intrinsic motivation when they feel belonging and respect - enhanced by not emphasising evaluation and letting students feel they have control over the learning environment William james theory of motivation -​ instincts drive human behavior and help with survival -​ However by the early 1900s researchers found some instincts were actually learned through experience Instinct -​ Natural unlearned species specific pattern of behaviour Drive reduction theory of motivation -​ Behaviour is directed to maintain homeostasis - deviations create physiological needs which result in psychosocial drive that directs behavior to go back to homeostasis -​ Habits important - Once we have engaged in a behaviour that successfully reduces a drive we are more likely to do that behaviour whenever faced with that drive in the future Homeostasis -​ Tendency to maintain a balance/optimal level within a biological system Optimal arousal theory of motivation -​ If we are underaroused we become bored and seek out some sort of stimulation and vice versa - Moderate arousal is generally optimal (e.g. if you are not aroused, bored, before a test or super anxious both not good) Yerkes-Dodson law -​ Optimal arousal depends on the complexity/difficulty of the task to be performed -​ A simple task is performed best when arousal levels are high and complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are low Maslow's hierarchy of needs -​ Showed Some Drives not rooted in biological need -​ Physiological needs → security → belonging → self worth → self actualization → self transcendence? Maslow deficient needs -​ When needs are satisfied motivation to pursue them decreases Maslow growth needs -​ When satisfied motivation to pursue them keeps increasing Blood glucose level -​ When it drops you get hungry because the pancreas and liver generate chemical signals Hypothalamus and hindbrain -​ Important in regulating hunger Ghrelin  -​ Hormone secreted by empty stomach - sends hungry signals to the brain Orexin -​ Hunger triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus Insulin -​ Hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose Leptin -​ Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant , causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger PYY -​ Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain Set point -​ Your body has a natural weight range it tries to maintain Hangry -​ Low glucose levels means more aggression and vice versa Affiliation -​ Need to become strong attached to others in enduring close relationships Self determination theory -​ We strive to satisfy three needs: competence, autonomy and relatedness -​ When we satisfy all three we reach optimal functioning/self determined motivation Motivation continuum -​ Amotivation → extrinsic motivation → intrinsic motivation Pictures of loved ones activate which section of the brain? -​ Prefrontal cortex - dampens feelings of physical pain Need to belong - -​ Feeds deep attachments to those inside the circle and hostilities to those outside Social isolation puts us at risk for: -​ Mental decline, ill health and suicidal thinking -​ Lonely older adults make more visits to the doctor and are at greater risk for dementia Social isolation can hurt our health as much as: -​ Physical inactivity and diabetes Loneliness -​ Less a matter of being along than of feeling ignored dismissed or not cared about Ostracism increases brain activity in -​ The anterior cingulate cortex which also responds to physical pain Cyberball game -​ People in an mri had brain activation in the same region as physical pain when the ball was not passed to them How does the practicality of social pain contradict maslow's hierarchy -​ Mammals need to address social pain before physical needs as we are born immature and need others to survive. Whenever your parents observed you in distress it caused them social pain which can only be corrected by helping you. Seasonal affective disorder -​ Focus on sadness but maybe also cold temperature contributes to feelings of sadness and isolation Pain of rejection is worse in which kind of culture -​ Individualist where people have weaker social support networks Acetaminophen -​ Lessens physical pain but also social pain Pribam 4 drives behind all human activity -​ Feeding, fighting, fleeing and sex Henry ellis -​ Found that transgenders are distinct from homosexuals Alfred kinsey -​ Surveyed 18000 people about sex when there was little research -​ Called the father of human sexuality research Sexual orientation  -​ Primarily driven by pleasure not reproduction -​ Although a person's intimate behaviour may have sexual fluidity (changing due to circumstances) sexual orientation are relatively stable over one's lifespan and are genetically rooted Sexual orientation concordance rate (SOCR) -​ Method of measuring genetic roots in sexual orientation -​ SOCRs are only high for monozygotic twins - very little relation for siblings or non-related people Most frequent kind of transgender -​ Transgender females (Male to female) Sexual fantasies -​ Any mental imagery that is sexually arousing -​ Not equivalent to sexual behaviour Masturbation benefits -​ Increased levels of sexual and marital satisfaction. Physical and psychological health. Decreases risk of prostate cancer significantly.