Developmental Psychology I Notes PDF

**[Developmental Psychology I (Ms. Jo Christine)]** **[(Check written notes)]** **Basic Issues in the Study of Development** - Introduction to developmental psychology (History and Basic issues (perspectives on development)) - Theories of development CHILD DEVELOPMENT AS A SCIENCE -...

**[Developmental Psychology I (Ms. Jo Christine)]** **[(Check written notes)]** **Basic Issues in the Study of Development** - Introduction to developmental psychology (History and Basic issues (perspectives on development)) - Theories of development CHILD DEVELOPMENT AS A SCIENCE - Parental pre-occupation with "expert" child rearing started in the early 20th century, when magazines starting publishing articles on child-rearing that referred to theories such as Freud's. Parents started turning to *paediatricians and psychologists* for advice, rather than to grandparents and older adults. - *John Watson* (1878 -- 1958), a behaviourist, was one of the first experts. He advocated *rigid feeding schedules* for infants and an orderly approach to child rearing, going against American parenting traditions. - *Dr. Benjamin Spock's* (1903 -- 1990) radically different views ebbed Watson's popularity, becoming fashionable in the 1950s. Influenced by Freud, he urged parents not to engage in conflicts over issues such as weaning and toilet training, and to *display affection to their children.* - Today Watson's views are seen as emotionally cold and *excessively rigid*, while Spock's recommendations as *overly indulgent*. Parents are increasingly turning to the internet for help, where no single "expert" voice predominates. WHAT DOES DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY STUDY? - Developmental science seeks to *identify variables that influence development and to explain how they work together to shape an individual's life.* Scientists develop theories and conduct research aimed at describing, explaining, and predicting *age-related changes* in behaviour, thinking, emotions and social relationships. - *Development* is defined as orderly and relatively enduring changes over time in *physical and neurological structures*, thought processes, and behaviour. - In the first 20 years of life, these changes usually result *in new, improved ways of reacting*, that is in behaviour that is healthier, better organised, more complex, more stable, more competent or more efficient. We speak of advances from creeping to walking, from babbling to talking, or *from concrete to abstract thinking*, as a result of development. In each such instance, we judge the later-appearing state to be a more adequate way of functioning than the earlier one. - There are 3 broad goals in the study of child development: 1\. To understand changes that appear to be *universal* (those that occur regardless of culture or personal experience). 2\. To explain individual *differences* (e.g. why infants react in particular ways to their mother leaving the room, while others play happily). 3\. To understand how children's behaviour is influenced by the *environmental context or situation* (contexts include immediate environment, as well as wider social and cultural influences). Mussen, Conger, Kagan, & Huston (1990). **Perspectives on Development** 1\. **Nature and Nurture** - Nature refers to *hereditary information* which we receive from our parents. Nurture refers to complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our *biological makeup and psychological experiences* before and after birth (e.g. language development). The *idealists and the rationalists*, principally *Plato and Descartes*, believed that at least some knowledge is *inborn*. On the other hand, a group of British philosophers called *empiricists*, including *John Locke*, insisted that at birth the mind is a *blank slate* (tabula rasa). Hence, knowledge is created by *experience*, the result of external, environmental factors acting on a child, whose only relevant internal characteristic is the capacity to respond. In short: - **Rationalists** believe knowledge comes primarily from reason and *innate ideas*, independent of sensory experience (e.g., Descartes). - **Idealists** argue that *reality is shaped by the mind or ideas*, emphasizing *perception* and thought as the basis of understanding (e.g., Kant). - **Empiricists** assert that knowledge arises from *sensory experience* and observation, rejecting innate ideas (e.g., Locke). 2\. **Stages and Sequences** - Another big issue in developmental psychology is the *continuity-discontinuity* issue. This basically answers the question, "Is development continuous or discontinuous?" *Continuous development* implies that it is a cumulative process of *gradually adding more skills* to already existing ones (i.e. a quantitative change). *Discontinuous development* states *new and different ways of responding to the world emerge at particular times*, in pre-determined stages (i.e. a qualitative change). 3\. **Internal and External Influences on Development** (Modern developmental psychology) **Maturation**: Arnold Gesell coined the term *maturation to describe genetically programmed sequential patterns of change.* Any maturational pattern is *universal, sequential and relatively impervious to environmental influences*. A maturationally determined behaviour happens *regardless of training or practice.* **The Timing of Experience**: Specific experiences interact with maturational patterns in complex manners. Hence, *both timing and experience may impact on development*, leading to the concepts of critical and sensitive periods in development. *A critical period* is defined as any time period during development when *an organism is especially responsive to and learns from a specific type of stimulation.* The same stimulation at other points has little or no effect (e.g. the 15 hour period wherein ducks may develop a following response to any moving or quacking object). If it does not occur in this time frame, it is difficult/ impossible to fully acquire in the future. *A sensitive period* is defined as *any time period during which a particular experience can best incorporated in the maturational process* (e.g. language development in infancy). If it does not occur in this time frame, it can still occur in the future. **Inborn Biases and Constraints**: Development is a result of experience filtered through initial biases, but those *biases constrain the number of developmental pathways that are possible* (e.g. limitations imposed by flight). Elizabeth Spelke (1991) claimed that babies are born with certain "pre-existing biases" or "constraints" on their understanding of the behaviour of objects (e.g. unsupported objects will move downwards). **Behaviour Genetics**: This involves the *study of genetic contributions to individual behaviour*, implying that *nature contributes to variations* from one individual to another. Research focuses primarily on identical and fraternal twins, and adopted children. Hereditary affects a vast range of physical aspects, pathology, and temperamental issues. *Identical twins share 100% of their genes, while fraternal twins share 50%.* **Gene-Environment Interaction**: A child's genetic heritage may affect his environment. *Children inherit their genes from their parents, who also usually create the environment they live in.* Secondly, each child's unique pattern of behaviour affects the way adults and other children respond. Thirdly, *children's interpretations* of their experiences are affected by inherited tendencies, such as intelligence, temperament, and pathology. **Internal Models of Experience**: Although often experiences are associated with external forces, the individual's view of his/her own experience, *that is the internal aspect of experience*, is also significant. This internal model of experience is *a set of core ideas about the self and relationships with others, through which all subsequent experience is filtered* (e.g. I usually look good). This self-model is *based on experience but it also shapes the future*. **Aslin's Model of Environmental Influence**: Richard Aslin's model attempts to explain *environmental influences on development*: 1\. The first model (**maturation**) represents a purely *maturational pattern* with no environmental effect (e.g. colour of eyes). 2\. The second model (**maintenance**) describes a pattern in which some *environmental input is necessary* to sustain a skill that has already *developed maturationally* (e.g. swimming at birth). 3\. The third model (**facilitation**) states that *a skill or behaviour develops earlier* than it normally would because of *experience* (e.g. language). The skill still develops eventually in other individuals and there are no permanent gains. 4\. The fourth model (**attunement**) describes how a particular *experience leads to a permanent gain* or an enduringly high level of performance (e.g. exposure to reading). 5\. The fifth model (**induction**) describes a *pure environmental effect*. In the *absence of experience, a particular behaviour does not develop at all* (e.g. playing the piano). **4. The Ecological Perspective**: This approach focuses on *external forces which may impact on a child.* A key proponent is Urie Bronfenbrenner, who proposed that a child grows up in a complex social environment (ecology), with a number of significant people. His model focuses on how the *components of this complex system interact to affect the development of the individual child.* Culture, whether *individualistic or collectivist*, is an integral part of this model. **5. Vulnerability and Resilience:** This approach considers *the complexity of the interaction between individual characteristics and the environment*. Children may be *resilient to outside forces, and similar environments are linked to different outcomes*. Children are born with *certain protective factors and vulnerabilities*, which then interact with the environment. Hence the same environment may produce different outcomes, depending on what the child brings into the interaction. MAIN THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT THREE PATHWAYS TO UNDERSTAND DEVELOPMENT The three main schools of thought are: *1. Psychoanalytic theories.* *2. Cognitive developmental/Information-Processing theories.* *3. Learning theories (classical conditioning; operant conditioning; Bandura's social cognitive theory).* RESEARCH METHODS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Developmental psychology uses research to achieve 4 goals: *1. To describe development (i.e. state what happens).* *2. To explain development (i.e. why an event occurs).* *3. To predict development (i.e. envisage an event).* *4. To influence development (i.e. intervention*). STUDYING AGE RELATED CHANGES Three methods may be used to study *age*-related changes: *1. Cross-sectional designs (i.e. different age groups at the same time).* *2. Longitudinal designs (i.e. same participants over a period of time).* *3. Sequential designs (i.e. combining cross-sectional and longitudinal designs).* IDENTIFYING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES There are various ways to study *variables* (characteristics), which vary between individuals: *1. Case studies and naturalistic observation.* *2. Correlations.* *3. Experiments.* CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH Comparisons of *different cultures* allows for identification of universality and improvement of people's lives. The main methods used are: *1. Ethnography (i.e. the systematic study of people and cultures).* *2. Cross-cultural comparison studies*. In all aspects of research, ethical guidelines, which *protect humans and animals*, are employed. **Pre-Natal Development and the New Born** - Conception and genetics - Development from conception to birth - Atypical prenatal development Note: **Foetal alcohol spectrum disorder** - a condition caused by prenatal alcohol exposure, leading to *physical* abnormalities (e.g., facial features, growth delays), *cognitive* impairments (e.g., learning and memory deficits), and *behavioural* issues (e.g., poor impulse control and social difficulties).  The higher the score, the better the baby is doing after birth. Baby may have *aortic stenosis* causing them to look blue. Prematurity is before 35 weeks. There are small to date babies (1.5kg) -- before 40 weeks. Every baby is different, some are birthed and are slower than other babies however this does not mean that they have an issue. Some babies may have symptoms like *Turner syndromes* that are not noticed immediately at birth. When the *neo specialists* assess a baby, they check their *muscle tone*. Ex. Flexibility of the baby. People can be regressed to the birthing stage by *hypnotherapy*. CONCEPTION AND GENETICS **First Trimester (Weeks 1--12)**: - **Development**: This is a critical period for foetal development. *Major organs* and structures, such as the heart, brain, and spinal cord, begin to form rapidly. By the end of the first trimester, the baby has *recognizable features* like arms, legs, and facial features. - **Strengths**: *Rapid cell division* and organ development. - **Vulnerabilities**: This is the most vulnerable period for the foetus, as it is *sensitive to genetic factors*, infections, toxins, and environmental hazards. *Miscarriages* are more common during this stage. **Second Trimester (Weeks 13--26)**: - **Development**: *Growth accelerates*, and the *baby starts to* *move*, and *internal organs continue to mature*. The foetus may start responding to external stimuli like sound. - **Strengths**: The risk of miscarriage decreases, and foetal development becomes more *resilient*. The mother may feel better, as the initial symptoms like nausea often subside. - **Vulnerabilities**: There can still be risks, such as *preterm labour or developmental disorders*, though the baby is less vulnerable than in the first trimester. **Third Trimester (Weeks 27--40)**: - **Development**: The baby *gains weight rapidly* and the lungs, brain, and other vital organs continue to mature. The baby becomes more active, and the *body stores fat* to prepare for life outside the womb. - **Strengths**: The baby's organs are fully developed, and it *can survive outside the womb* with medical help if born prematurely. - **Vulnerabilities**: Risks like *preterm birth, low birth weight, and complications from maternal health conditions* (e.g., gestational diabetes, hypertension) are higher. THE PROCESS OF CONCEPTION The *ovum* is released from one of the *ovaries* roughly midway between periods. If not fertilised, the ovum travels from the ovary down the *fallopian tube* toward the uterus, where it is expelled as menstrual flow. If sperm fertilises the ovum this results in a *zygote*. The zygote then continues on its journey down the fallopian tube and eventually implants itself in the wall of the uterus. THE BASIC GENETICS OF CONCEPTION The *nucleus* of each cell contains *46 chromosomes* (23 pairs). Most genetic material is contained here. Cells divide through a process called *mitosis*, where each set duplicates itself. In 22 of the chromosome pairs, the members carry identical *genetic information*. The 23rd chromosome is the *sex chromosome* that determines the child's sex and comes in two varieties, namely the X and the Y chromosome. A healthy female has two X chromosomes, while a healthy male has one X and one Y chromosome. The sperm and the ovum, collectively called *gametes* (germ cells), are the only cells that do not contain 46 chromosomes. *Each gamete has only 23 chromosomes* instead of 23 pairs. When a child is conceived, the 23 chromosomes in the ovum and the 23 in the sperm combine to form the 23 pairs that will be part of this new human being. *Gametes* divide through a process called *meiosis -- sexual reproduction*. Chromosomes are composed of a chemical called *DNA.* The string of DNA can be divided further into *genes*, each of which control or influence a particular feature of an organism or a portion of some developmental pattern. *Genetic mapping* is the process by which the locus (place) of every human gene on the *chromosome is identified*. To simplify, genes are segments of DNA, which collectively make up chromosomes. 23 PAIRS IN EACH -- 46 CHROMOSOMES IN TOTAL GENOTYPES, PHENOTYPES AND GENETIC TRANSMISSION When the 23 chromosomes meet, they provide a mix of "instructions": 1\. *Homozygous pattern*: The two genes in the pair at any given genetic locus *carry the same instructions.* 2\. *Heterozygous pattern*: The two genes in the pair at any given genetic locus *carry different instructions.* PATTERNS OF GENETIC INHERITANCE **1. Genotype and phenotype**: The *genotype* is the specific *set of instructions* contained in the genes. The *phenotype* is the set of *actual observed characteristics*, a product of the genotype*, environmental influences* from the time of conception onward, and the interaction between the two. **2. Dominant and recessive genes**: A single dominant gene (*expressed even if one copy is present*) carries more weight than a recessive gene (*only expressed if both copies are present*). Dominant genes include dimples, curly hair, and freckles, while recessive genes include flat feet, red hair, and thin lips. **3. Polygenic and multifactorial transmission**: In polygenic patterns of inheritance, *many genes are at play*. In multifactorial patterns of inheritance, *transmission is affected both by genes and the environment.* 4\. **Genomic imprinting and mitochondrial transmission**: *Some genes are biochemically marked at the time ova and sperm develop in the bodies of potential mothers and fathers* (e.g. Prader-Willi Syndrome and Angelman Syndrome) - *Prader-Willi Syndrome* is a genetic disorder caused by a deletion or disruption of *paternal* chromosome 15, leading to symptoms like poor muscle tone, insatiable appetite, and intellectual disabilities. - *Angelman Syndrome* is a genetic disorder caused by a deletion or mutation on *maternal* chromosome 15, characterized by severe developmental delays, frequent laughter, and difficulty with coordination and speech. *Mitochondrial inheritance* implies that *children inherit genes located outside the nucleus of the zygote,* found only in the *ovum* before it is fertilised. Hence, this type of transmission is mainly *maternal*. The mother herself may be unaffected. **5. Twins and siblings**: 3 out of 100 births in the USA are multiple births. *Fraternal twins* develop when *two ova* have been produced and both have been fertilised, each by a *separate sperm*. They are no more alike genetically than any other pair of siblings. *Identical* twins are a result of a *single fertilised ovum*, which initially divides in the normal way, but then separates into two parts, with each part developing into a separate individual. DEVELOPMENT FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH **1. The germinal stage**: This begins at *conception and ends when the zygote is implanted in the walls of the uterus.* The zygote then spends roughly 1 week floating down towards the uterus. Cell division *begins 24 to 36 hours after conception*. Implantation is complete around *10 days to 2 weeks after conception.* **2. The embryonic stage** (implantation to 8 weeks): *The placenta, the umbilical cord and amniotic fluid develop in this sta*ge. A *heartbeat* can be detected 4 weeks after conception, and the beginning of *lungs and limbs are apparent*. By the end of the embryonic period, *rudimentary fingers and toes, eyes, eyelids, nose, mouth, and external ears are all present*, as are the *basic parts of the nervous system*. The embryonic stage ends when *organogenesis*, the process of *organ formation*, is complete. **3. The foetal stage** (8 weeks to 40 weeks): *All organ systems are refined* at this stage. The nervous system also develops mainly in the foetal stage, with the *brain and the spinal cord developing from the neural tube*. The *major growth in foetal size* occurs late in the foetal period. SEX DIFFERENCES IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT The *male embryo secretes testosterone* as from the 2nd month of conception. No equivalent secretion is seen in female foetuses. Research indicates that *prenatal hormones may play a large role in brain development and functioning,* even in later years. *Girls progress faster in skeletal prenatal development*, though on average boys are *born longer and heavier.* *More males than females are conceived*. More males are also *spontaneously aborted*. They also are more likely to present with *congenital malformations and injuries at birth*. In utero, they are more *vulnerable to external stressors*. This vulnerability continues throughout life, with *males dying younger* and being more *prone to behavioural and learning difficulties*. Male foetuses are more *physically active*, while female foetuses are *more sensitive to external stimuli.* PRENATAL BEHAVIOUR The foetus reacts to sound with *heart rate changes, head turns and body movements* (by 25th week). A late term foetus displays neurological responses to sound. The foetus can distinguish between *familiar and novel stimuli* (by 32nd week), which indicates learning. Moreover, newborns seem to remember stimuli to which they had been exposed prenatally. ATYPICAL PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT (Hip dysplasia, dislocated shoulders in male babies) **GENETIC DISORDERS** Genetic disorders: These disorders may be autosomal or sex-linked: 1\. Autosomal disorders are caused by recessive genes, such as *PKU, sickle cell anaemia and Tay-Sachs,* and are usually related to *race*. *Dominant genes* may also cause autosomal disorders (Huntington's). 2\. Sex linked disorders are mostly caused by recessive genes, and include red-green colour blindness, haemophilia, and Fragile X syndrome. Common in Malta because of inbreeding -- proximity is much higher) **PKU (Phenylketonuria)**: A genetic disorder where the body cannot break down the *amino acid phenylalanine*, leading to brain damage if untreated. **Sickle Cell Anaemia**: A genetic condition where *red blood cells become crescent-shaped*, causing blockages, pain, and reduced oxygen delivery to tissues. **Tay-Sachs Disease**: A fatal genetic disorder causing *a buildup of fatty substances* *in the brain*, leading to severe neurological decline in infancy or early childhood. **Huntington\'s Disease**: A genetic disorder causing *progressive brain degeneration*, leading to movement difficulties, cognitive decline, and emotional problems in adulthood. **Haemophilia**: A genetic condition where the *blood lacks the ability to clot properly*, causing excessive bleeding even from minor injuries. **Fragile X Syndrome**: A genetic disorder linked to *intellectual disabilities*, learning challenges, and behavioural issues, caused by a *mutation in the FMR1 gene*. **CHROMOSOMAL ERRORS** Chromosomal anomalies: These disorders may be a result of *trisomies or sex-chromosome abnormalities*: 1\. A *trisomy* is a condition in which there are *3 copies of a particular autosome*. Down syndrome. 2\. *Sex-chromosome anomalies* are linked with *incomplete or incorrect division of either chromosome.* (XXY-boys with Klinefelter's syndrome: XO -- girls with Turner's syndrome) **TERATOGENS -- environment** Deviant prenatal development can result from variations in the *environment in which the child is nurtured.* An organ system is most vulnerable to disruption at the time when it is developing most rapidly, usually in the *first trimester*. Teratogens include maternal diseases, substance abuse and other environmental factors. 1. Maternal disease (rubella, HIV, cytomegalovirus and other STDs, chronic illness; environmental hazards) 2. Substance abuse like smoking, alcohol etc. 3. Other factors like vitamin a deficiency, chemicals, maternal diet, maternal age etc. **Birth and Early Infancy** BIRTH THE STAGES OF LABOUR **1. Dilation and effacement**: Dilation refers to the *opening up of the cervix, while* *effacement refers to its flattening out.* **2. Delivery**: This occurs when the *cervix is fully dilated* and *pushing* occurs. **3. Afterbirth**: This is usually brief and *involves the birthing of the placenta and other uterine material.* BEHAVIOUR IN EARLY INFANCY REFLEXES AND BEHAVIOURAL STATES *Reflexes* are defined as *physical responses* triggered involuntarily *by* *specific stimuli*. 1\. Some reflexes persist to adulthood. (Blinking, coughing) 2\. **Adaptive reflexes**, considered essential for the *new born\'s survival*, they are necessary throughout *the 1st year.* (Rooting, sucking) 3\. **Primitive reflexes**, not necessary for survival, also disappear in the 1st year. They are possibly linked to *later behaviour patterns*. Needed in early development. (Moro, grasping) With respect to behaviour, *neonates display 5 states of consciousness*, with the full cycle repeating itself every 2 hours: deep sleep, active sleep, quiet awake, active awake, and crying and fussing. Crying may take up to 11% of the time. Crying intensifies by the 6th week and then drops off. Crying signifies different needs, with different cries for different needs. Colic. PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE ABILITIES Motor skills emerge gradually in the early weeks. *Improvement of motor skills* follows 2 broad patterns: Baby will focus best from the distance between the arm and chest. **Cephalocaudal** - Motor skills improve from *the head downward*, with infants gaining control over their *head and neck* before their arms and legs. **Proximodistal** - Motor skills improve from the *centre of the body outward*, with control developing first in the *torso* and then extending to the *hands and fingers*. Babies perform a limited range of motor skills in a repetitive manner. Thelen (1995) noted that these movements do not seem to be totally voluntary or coordinated, but they also do not appear to be random. They may be preparing the baby for *future motoric movement*. The *neonate's perceptual skills* are significantly more advanced than motor skills: 1\. Focus *both eyes* on the same spot; *discriminate mother's face* from others; and after a few weeks, *follow a moving object*. (sight) 2\. Hear *sounds in pitch and loudness* of the human voice; roughly *locate objects by sound*; *discriminate some individual noises*, particularly mother's voice. (hearing) 3\. Taste *the 4 basic tastes* and identify *familiar odours*. (taste and smell) With respect to learning, it is evident that babies can be *classically conditioned*. They may also learn through *operant conditioning*. The baby also starts to *organise experiences* into expectancies, helping it to start *distinguishing novel events from familiar ones*. This is known as **schematic learning**. Habituation is also present in the new born's repertoire. TEMPERAMENT AND SOCIAL SKILLS\ The term '*temperament'* is defined as the *inborn predispositions that form the foundations of personality.* Thomas and Chess (1977) classified neonates as being easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm up. Although traits are present at birth, inborn temperamental differences are shaped, strengthened, bent, or counteracted by the child's relationships and experiences. A newborn can exhibit interest, distress, disgust, and a half-smile. These emotions increase in the first months of life to include several others, such as anger, joy, fear, and surprise. Turn-taking also happens. Beginnings of turn-taking are possibly present. HEALTH AND WELLNESS IN EARLY INFANCY WHAT DO NEWBORNS REQUIRE TO STAY HEALTHY? **1. Adequate nutrition**: A baby eats as often as 10 times a day, with *breast fed* and *bottle fed* babies eating with the same frequency. **2. Health care and immunisations**: *Medical screening* is important to monitor babies' development. *Vaccinations* are given against a variety of illnesses. ILLNESSES IN INFANCY 1\. Amongst all infants, one of the most common diseases is *diarrhoea*, which accounts for the deaths of 3.5 million children annually. 2\. *Upper respiratory tract infections* are also common, as are *ear infections*. INFANT MORTALITY In the USA, 7 out of 1,000 babies die before the age of 1 year, with the majority of deaths occurring in the *first month of life*. A sizeable fraction of these babies die from **SIDS**/ crib death -  *Sudden infant death syndrome* is the sudden and unexplained death of a baby younger than 1 year old.  **Physical Development** THE BRAIN AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM **1. The midbrain and the medulla**: These structures are the *most fully developed at birth*. They are found in the lower part of the skull and connected to the spinal cord. They control vital activities such as *heartbeat and respiration, as well as arousal states, elimination and head and neck movements.* **2. The cortex**: The convoluted *grey matter* wrapped around the midbrain, known as the cortex, is the *least developed at birth*. It is involved in *perception, body movement, thinking and language.* There are several critical processes that contribute to the changes which continue to occur in the brain and the nervous system throughout childhood. Note: *Agnosia* is a neurological disorder characterized by an inability to process *sensory information*. Often there is a loss of ability to recognize objects, persons, sounds, shapes, or smells while the specific sense is not defective nor is there any significant memory loss. Caused from stroke, dementia etc. CRITICAL PROCESSES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO CHANGES **1. Growth spurts**: The brain grows in spurts, rather than in a continuous, smooth fashion, with *each growth spurt followed by a period of stability*. Many growth spurts are *localized* rather than applicable to the whole brain. **2. Synaptic development**: *Synaptogenesis contributes to brain growth*. the process of creating connections between neurons, resulting in the growth of both dendrites and axons, contributes to brain growth. At the cortical level, this occurs rapidly during the first *2 years of life*. This is followed by a period of *synaptic "pruning*". This is where unnecessary cortical connections are eliminated. Resulting in selective retention of the most efficient pathway. Pruning continues to occur in spurts throughout childhood and adolescence, in different parts of the brain, at different times. Synaptogenesis relieves heavily on the child's specific experiences. Each time some experience stimulates a neutral pathway, it leaves behind a chemical signal, which is strengthened with repeated use of the same pathway. That particular neural connection becomes immune to the pruning process and becomes a permanent part of the brain architecture, if signal strength reaches a pre-determined threshold level. Hence use it or lose it. **3. Myelination**: This is the process through which *sheaths are created around individual axons to insulate them from one another electrically and to improve conductivity of the nerves.* Myelination is most rapid during the first *2 years of life*, and continues at a *slower pace at least until early adulthood*. The growth of myelin, enables better communication with other brain regions- improved judgement, impulse control, and long-term planning. **4. Lateralisation**: This term refers to the *specialisation in function that occurs in the two hemispheres of the brain*. The growth of the *corpus callosum* throughout childhood accompanies lateralisation. Most people are *left-brain dominant* (95%), while a few are *right brain dominant* (5%). Hemispheric specialisation may be due to both genetically programmed maturation and experience. The frontal lobes also grow more developed. BONES, MUSCLES, AND MOTOR SKILLS MAIN CHANGES IN THE BODY **1. Patterns of change in size and shape**: At 2 years of age, a toddler is about half as tall as he will be as an adult. Growth from birth to maturity is neither continuous nor smooth. *Three distinct growth phases can be identified. (Early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence)* **2. Bones**: Surprisingly, the hand, wrist, ankle, and foot all have fewer bones at birth than they will have at full maturity. The fontanels fuse by the age of 18 months, creating a single connected skull bone. Bones also go to a process known as *ossification*. **3. Muscles and fat**: Like bones, the quality of muscle fibres changes throughout childhood. Muscles become *longer and thicker*. A muscle growth spurt occurs in adolescence. The substantial difference in *strength* is one reflection of *the sex difference in muscle mass*. This is largely the result of *hormone differences*, although differences in *exercise patterns* or fitness levels may also play some role. *Fat storage* is also different between the sexes. **4. Using the body**: The ability to use the body to carry out *physical activities* involves the interaction of several separate systems. One such measure is *stamina*, which increases throughout childhood and is linked to growth of the heart and lungs. *The lungs increase in size and the heart rate drops.* Motor development includes both movement skills, which are termed *gross motor skills*, and manipulative skills, also known as *fine motor skills*. As a general rule, gross motor skills develop earlier, although both are present as from birth. THE ENDOCRINE AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS THE DEVELOPMENT OF SEXUAL MATURITY 1. **Hormones**: These are secretions of the various endocrine glands, which govern overall physical growth and sexual maturation. The *pituitary gland* provides the trigger for the release of hormones from other glands. It also secretes *increased levels of gonadotrophic hormones in puberty*, which are linked to the *secretion of sex hormones*. The main changes in puberty are those linked to sexual development, both in primary sexual characteristics and in secondary sexual characteristics. *Primary sex characteristics* - the reproductive organs develop dramatically. *Secondary sex characteristics* - the nonreproductive characteristics, such as female breasts and hips and male voice quality and body hair. 2. **Sequence of changes**: Both boys and girls go through sequential changes during puberty, until adult maturity is attained. Apart from the growth spurt and the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics in both sexes, *girls go through menarche (first period) and boys develop viable sperm.* 3. **The timing of puberty**: It is believed that *early developing girls display more psychological and adjustment difficulties than average or late developers*. On the other hand, early developing boys display the opposite. However, what is most important is that it is the discrepancy between a *teenaged girl's internal model of puberty and her experiential reality that predicts the effects of pubertal timing*. This has yet to be studied in boys. Physical development Adolescence begins with **PUBERTY**- *the time when we mature sexually*. Puberty's landmark- ejaculation in males and menstrual period in girls. The *sequence of the physical changes in puberty are more predictable than their timing*. Early or late development may have psychological consequences. Puberty's hormonal surge, limbic system development and developing frontal lobes- impulsiveness, riskiness etc. Note on Adolescence - The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. *Life span perspective* -- *maturation* and experience shape us not only in infancy and childhood, but also in adolescence and beyond. It starts with the physical beginnings of sexual maturation. Social achievement of independent adult status. Note -- Neonatal means newborns/up to one month from birth  **The Ecology of Development: The Child within the Family** ECOLOGICAL THEORY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT - explains human development as being influenced by multiple layers of environmental systems that interact with each other and with the individual over time. The theory emphasizes the dynamic interplay between a *person\'s biology and their ecological environment.* The child is considered to be at the centre of a series of concentric circles. Elements in each circle influence the circle inside it. A human being consists of *biological make-up* and is most directly influenced by *immediate environment.* On the other hand, *the immediate environment* is influenced by the *social and economic context*. The *social and economic context* is influenced by *cultural context:* beliefs, values, moral guidelines. A person interacts with these contexts as part of a system (2-way interaction). ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS - **Microsystem.** - **Mesosystem.** - **Exosystem.** - **Macrosystem**. - **Chronosystem**. MICROSYSTEM The setting in which an individual lives. This includes the family, peers, school, and immediate neighbourhood. The child has the most *direct* interactions with these agents. The individual helps construct settings, not passive (reciprocity). MESOSYSTEM The relations between microsystems, the connections between contexts. The relation of family experiences to school experiences, school to church, family to peers e.g.: *A mother who argues with the class teacher may create a ripple effect on the child.* EXOSYSTEM The exosystem is composed of experiences in a social setting in which an individual does not have an active role but which nevertheless influence experience in an immediate context e.g. A *parent's job experiences* will affect family life which, in turn, will affect children; the social network of parents. The environment is external to the child. MACROSYSTEM The *attitudes/ideologies of the culture* in which an individual lives e.g.: religion, democracy, ethnicity. CHRONOSYSTEM (often is changing) The patterning of environmental events and life transitions over the life course; effects created by time or critical periods in development. Any normative transition. Non-normative events. Socio-historic conditions. BAUMRIND'S PARENTING STYLES TYPES OF PARENTING STYLES *Diane Baumrind* proposed a *system of child rearing* which looks at combinations of the following: 1\. **Warmth** (*nurturance*). 2\. **Level of expectations** (*maturity demands*). 3\. **The clarity and consistency of rules** (*control*). 4\. **Communication between parent and child.** TYPES OF PARENTING STYLES Three specific combinations of the characteristics were proposed: 1\. **The permissive style**: High in nurturance but low in maturity demands, control, and communication. **Characteristics**: Parents are warm, nurturing, and responsive but have few rules or expectations for behaviour and maturity. They avoid setting firm boundaries and are often *lenient*. **Impact on Children**: Children may feel loved but often *lack self-discipline*, struggle with authority, and may have difficulties in social situations due to lack of structure. 2\. **The authoritarian style**: High in control and maturity demands but low in nurturance and communication. **Characteristics**: Parents *enforce strict rules*, demand high levels of obedience and maturity, and often rely on punishment rather than discussion. They tend to be *less nurturing* and are less likely to explain their rules. **Impact on Children**: Children may become *obedient* and proficient but may also struggle with *low self-esteem*, fear of failure, and difficulty in decision-making due to limited autonomy. 3**. The authoritative style**: High in all four variables. **Characteristics**: Parents *balance* high expectations for maturity and control with warmth, responsiveness, and open communication. They set clear rules but also explain the reasons behind them and encourage independence. **Impact on Children**: Children tend to develop *confidence*, self-regulation, and strong social skills, as this style fosters a balance between discipline and emotional support. **Personality Development** DEFINING PERSONALITY THE DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY Personality is broadly defined as the collection of relatively enduring *patterns of reacting to and interacting with others* and the environment that *distinguishes each child or adult.* The more or less STABLE, INTERNAL factors that make one person's behaviour CONSISTENT from one time to another and DIFFERENT from the behaviour other people would manifest in comparable situations Studies indicate that the culture we belong to, especially whether it is individualistic or collectivistic, will have a huge impact on how personality is perceived and the expectations we have of it. - **Individualistic cultures** 'tend to conceive of people as self-directed and autonomous, and they tend to prioritize independence and uniqueness as cultural values' Personality is *stable* People focus more on *the self & on 'personality characteristics* (e.g., I am an introvert, I am open to new experiences) - **Collectivistic cultures** 'tend to see people as connected with others and embedded in a broader social context -- as such, they tend to emphasize interdependence, family relationships, and social conformity' Personality is *flexible* and described according to *social expectations* People describe themselves in terms of *social roles* (I am a brother, I am a nurse) Identification of the basic dimensions of personality would enable a profile of key traits. Coming to agreement on the nature of the key dimensions making up personality has not been easy, but researchers seemed to have arrived at a consensus. THE BIG 5 by McCrae & Costa *Adult personality* can be adequately described as a set of variations along *five major dimensions*, referred to as the Big Five. **Openness to Experience**: - Characteristics: Imagination, curiosity, creativity, and willingness to explore new ideas. - High scorers are adventurous and open-minded, while low scorers are more conventional and resistant to change. **Conscientiousness**: - Characteristics: Organization, responsibility, self-discipline, and goal-oriented behaviour. - High scorers are dependable and hardworking, while low scorers may be more spontaneous or careless. **Extraversion**: - Characteristics: Sociability, energy, assertiveness, and a preference for social interaction. - High scorers are outgoing and energetic, while low scorers (introverts) prefer solitude and quieter settings. **Agreeableness**: - Characteristics: Compassion, cooperation, trust, and kindness toward others. - High scorers are empathetic and helpful, while low scorers may be more competitive or antagonistic. **Neuroticism**: - Characteristics: Emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, and vulnerability to stress. - High scorers tend to experience more negative emotions, while low scorers are more emotionally stable and resilient. Researchers who wish to apply this model to children have asked two basic questions: 1. Do these five dimensions accurately describe children\'s personality? 2. What connection, if any, do these factors, have to infant and early childhood temperament? - **Freud's psychosexual stages** - **Erikson's psychosocial stages** - **Marcia's theory of identity achievement (diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, and achievement)** - **Bowlby's model of attachment READINGS** **FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES** THE NATURE OF THE STAGES Psychosexual development begins in early infancy and develops through a series of *universal, predetermined stages*, regardless of society or culture. Development at each stage may be arrested by fixation or regression. Each stage is named according to the body zone which provides *libido satisfaction.* **THE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES** Oral stage (birth to 1 year). Anal stage (1 year to 3 years). Phallic stage (3 years to 5 years). Sexual latency stage (5 years to 12 years). Genital stage (12 to 18 years and adultood). THE ORAL STAGE During the oral stage, the mouth is the main source of pleasure. The major developmental task is *weaning*. Pleasure is demonstrated by activities such as thumb-sucking or mouthing, while *displeasure is demonstrated by spitting*. Fixations at this stage may result in *oral behaviours,* such as overeating or smoking. The baby operates from the *id position*, with the ego still being undeveloped. THE ANAL STAGE The libido is transferred to the other *autoerotic zone*, which is the anal region, possibly due to this stage's major developmental task of toilet training. Fixations may result in adult excessive orderliness and stinginess or the opposite. *The ego develops* as the child starts to regulate bodily impulses and to delay immediate gratification to meet the demands of the external world. The child derives a feeling of pleasure and a feeling of power when engaging in anal activity. THE PHALLIC STAGE During this stage, children derive pleasure in *touching and manipulating their own sex organs,* and *masturbation* takes place. Fantasies and preoccupations with sexuality start to appear. Eventually, the self as the love object starts being replaced by the opposite sex parent. *Children face an ambivalent situation of identification and aggression towards the same sex parent.* Fixations may result in adult vanity and recklessness or the opposite. LATENCY STAGE The libidinal forces, the aggressive impulses and sexual instincts calm down, and identification with the same sex parent becomes strong. The major developmental task of this stage is the development of *ego defense mechanisms*. Fixation does not normally occur. There is also the *development of the superego.* GENITAL STAGE Puberty occurs due to the *biological maturation of the hormonal and reproductive systems*. This period is characterised by an intense overdrive of sexual tension, and a more mature form of sexual attachment occurs. These intense sexual drives are restrained by social demands for adherence to moral values. Negative societal views of teenagers engaging in sexual practices complicates the situation. Note: Data can be skewed and misinterpreted -- example: males are less depressed -- men are less likely to seek help, machoism -- symptoms are seen differently in men such as addictions and anger **ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES MAIN DIFFERENCES FROM PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY** Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was initially a disciple of Freud and his wife. He shared most of Freud\'s basic assumptions but there are some crucial differences: 1\. Erikson placed less emphasis on sexual drive and *focused on the emergence of a sense of identify.* 2\. He argued that, although early years are important, identity is not fully formed at the end of adolescence and *further development is achieved in adulthood*. THE NATURE OF THE STAGES There are eight different stages of development, with each stage being characterised by a crisis. *Crisis refers not just to emotional turmoil but also to possibilities for growth.* There are two possible outcomes in every stage and the individual actually experiences both sides of the conflict. *The bipolar nature* of the social crisis gives each stage its name. TRUST vs MISTRUST (Birth to 18 months) The development of trust includes trusting others and developing a sense of one\'s own trustworthiness. This sense of trust facilitates later development. The necessary prerequisite for the development of trust is *maternal love and care*, a consistent and predictable pattern through which infants' basic needs are satisfied. AUTONOMY vs SHAME and DOUBT (18 months to 3½ years) The main issue in the second step of the cycle is between becoming an autonomous, creative individual or a dependent (if we can experience and discover our bodies), inhibited and shameful individual, filled with self-doubt. Although still dependant on others, children will start to develop autonomous choices. Exaggerated signs of autonomy may include temper tantrums, "yes-no" game, and mastery of self-control. Both parents play a key role. INITIATIVE vs GUILT (3½ years to 6 years) At this stage, the child is driven by an intense need to actively and curiously explore and conquer the world in an energetic fashion. If this curiosity is interpreted as intrusion or aggression by the parent, and the child is punished or inhibited, initiative may wane and a sense of immobilisation (through fear or guilt) may develop. Entire family. INDUSTRY vs INFERIORITY (6 years to 12 years) The period between school entry and puberty is an intense time of learning and mastery of societal skills. Children will learn to take pride in their work and will seek to work hard to achieve a sense of success. Our neighbours and schools. This period is often described as "the apprenticeship for life". IDENTITY vs IDENTITY CONFUSION (Adolescence) During this period, the adolescent struggles to search for a personal identity and seeks to answer questions such as "Where did I come from?"; "Who am I?"; "What do I want to become?" Erikson stated that the adolescent works to establish both a sexual identity and an occupational identify. Identity must be acquired through sustained individual effort. Failure to actively work on identity formation may result in identity confusion. Role models. The remaining three stages are worked through in adulthood: 6\. Intimacy vs Isolation (Young Adulthood). -- making long-term commitments (partners) 7\. Generativity vs Stagnation (Adulthood -- 40s). -- becoming comfortable and contributing, we want to leave another generation in this world (people at home and at work) 8\. Integrity vs Despair (Old Age). -- reviewing our entire life (mankind) Stages Of Development And Developmental Tasks 01B \"Tiny Animals In India Identify Interesting Giraffes Instantly.\" **JAMES MARCIA'S THEORY OF IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT THE NATURE OF THE THEORY** Marcia focused on expanding and elaborating Erikson's psycho-social theory, especially the adolescence stage of "*identity vs role confusion*". According to Marcia, *the criteria for attainment of a mature identity* are based on two essential variables that Erikson had already identified: 1\. **Crisis (exploration)** - Crisis refers to the *period of exploration* during adolescence, where individuals actively search for and *experiment with different roles, beliefs, and values*. It is a time of questioning and reassessment as they try to figure out who they are and what they want to become. *Exploration* refers to an *active examination of developmental opportunities, identity issues and parentally defined goals and values*. A search for personally appropriate alternatives in respect to occupation, goals, values and belief ensues. 2\. **Commitment** - Commitment involves *the process of making choices and decisions based on the exploration phase, where individuals settle on particular values, beliefs, and goals*. It signifies the resolution of the crisis, leading to a *stable and coherent sense of identity*. Commitment refers to involvement in and allegiance to the self-chosen aspirations, goals, values, beliefs and occupation. TAXONOMY OF IDENTITY STATUS When applying the criteria of absence or presence of crisis and commitment, four distinct identity statuses emerge: 1\. **Identity diffusion or identity confusion** - This status occurs when an individual has *neither experienced a crisis nor made a commitment*, leading to a lack of direction and uncertainty about their identity. 2.**Foreclosure** - In this status, individuals commit to an identity without experiencing a crisis or exploring alternatives, often *adopting roles and values imposed by others*, such as parents or society. 3\. **Moratorium** - This is a period of *active exploration*, where individuals are experiencing a crisis and actively searching for their identity but have not yet made a firm commitment. 4\. **Identity achievement** - This status occurs when an individual has successfully *navigated a crisis, explored various options, and made a commitment to a coherent and stable identity*. **BOWLBY'S MODEL OF ATTACHMENT**: DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES Bowlby stated that during the first two years of life, the attachment of infants goes through various developmental changes. Over time, an affectional bond develops, which is supported by *new cognitive and emotional capacities*, as well as a history of *maternal sensitive and responsive care*. A four-stage framework for understanding these developmental attachment changes was proposed. 1\. **The preattachment phase** (birth to 6 weeks): *Built in signals* (e.g. gazing, grasping) help bring newborns into close contact with significant others. The infants' responses when soothed or held urges the carer to further increase interaction. Although newborns can recognise maternal smell and voice, attachment has not yet occurred, as babies may be left with unfamiliar adults without showing any visible distress. 2\. **The "attachment-in-the-making" phase** (6 weeks to 6 - 8 months): Infants start to respond *differently to caregivers than to strangers*, although they still do not protest when separated from the carer (e.g. they smile more readily at the caregiver). Infants learn that their actions will affect the behaviour of others and they develop an expectation that the carer will respond when signalled. 3\. **The phase of "clear-cut" attachment** (6 - 8 months to 18 months - 2 years): Attachment to a familiar caregiver is now in place and *separation anxiety*, which reaches a peak at 15 months of age, is hence present. The development at this age of Piaget's concept of object permanence suggests that infants have a clear understanding that the caregiver still exists when not physically present. 4\. **Formation of reciprocal relationship** (18 months - 2 years onwards): Separation distress declines as the growth in *language and cognition* helps the child to understand some factors for the caregiver\'s absence and to predict the eventual return. Rather than using the psychomotor capacity (e.g. cooing; reaching out) to signal to the parent, the child now uses language to engage meaningfully. READINGS OF PAUL SUMMARIZED: **\"Validity of the Draw a Person: A Quantitative Scoring System (DAP:QSS) for Clinically Evaluating Intelligence\"** This study evaluates the psychometric properties of the **Draw a Person: A Quantitative Scoring System (DAP:QSS)**, a nonverbal tool designed to measure intelligence in children aged 5--17 through human figure drawings. Researchers examined its reliability, construct validity, and utility as a screening tool for intellectual difficulties, using a large sample of Italian school-aged children. **Key Findings:** 1. **Reliability**: - The DAP:QSS demonstrated high inter-rater reliability and internal consistency. 2. **Construct Validity**: - Older children scored higher on DAP:QSS, but only up to age 11, suggesting a ceiling effect. This limited its validity for assessing intellectual development in older children. 3. **Concurrent Validity**: - Modest correlations were found between DAP:QSS scores and Raven\'s Progressive Matrices (a standard nonverbal intelligence test). These correlations were too weak to establish DAP:QSS as a robust measure of intelligence. 4. **Association with Academic Achievement**: - DAP:QSS scores did not correlate significantly with school grades, indicating it is not a reliable predictor of academic performance. 5. **Screening for Intellectual Difficulties**: - The DAP:QSS had low sensitivity and high false positive/negative rates, making it ineffective for identifying children with intellectual challenges. **\"The Evolution of Developmental Theories Since Piaget: A Metaview\" by Philippe Rochat (2023)** This article explores the impact of Jean Piaget\'s developmental theory and traces the evolution of key developmental psychology theories since his death in 1980. It highlights how modern theories have emerged as reactions to Piaget\'s four cornerstone assumptions and considers their implications in the nature-nurture debate. **Key Points:** 1. **Piaget\'s Four Cornerstone Assumptions:** - **Action Realism**: Knowledge is actively constructed through interaction with the environment. - **Domain Generality**: Cognitive skills apply across various domains, not specific to any one area. - **Stages**: Development occurs in fixed, discontinuous stages. - **Late Representation**: Conceptual thinking emerges late, after infancy. 2. **Challenges to Piaget's Views:** - Modern research has largely rejected \"late representation,\" demonstrating that infants exhibit inferential and representational abilities early in life. - Theories diverge in addressing action realism, domain generality, and stages, reflecting varied stances on cognition and development. 3. **Nine Major Post-Piaget Theories:** - **Core Knowledge**: Innate representational systems underlie infant cognition. - **Theory-Theory**: Infants act as \"scientists,\" generating and testing hypotheses. - **Evolutionary Psychology**: Innate cognitive abilities are shaped by evolutionary processes. - **Information Processing**: Cognitive growth parallels improvements in \"mental hardware\" like memory and attention. - **Statistical Learning**: Infants parse patterns and probabilities in their environment to build expectations. - **Ecological Psychology**: Perception and action guide learning, without needing mental representations. - **Dynamic Systems Theory**: New skills emerge from interactions among multiple systems. - **Attachment Theory**: Early relationships influence cognitive and emotional outcomes. - **Neo-Constructivism**: Integrates Piaget\'s constructivist ideas with newer findings on infant competence. 4. **Historical Significance:** - Piaget\'s theory serves as a historical benchmark for modern developmental psychology. - Understanding the historical evolution of ideas fosters better, more self-aware scientific inquiry. **Conclusion:** The article emphasizes the importance of history in developmental psychology, illustrating how contemporary theories build on and react to Piaget's foundational ideas. It calls for researchers to appreciate their intellectual roots to promote clarity and humility in scientific exploration. **Rochat, P. (2023). *The Evolution of Developmental Theories Since Piaget: A Metaview*** Published in *Perspectives on Psychological Science*, this article examines the impact of Jean Piaget's developmental theory and how modern developmental psychology has evolved since his death in 1980. It provides a \"metaview\" of key theories that have emerged, many of which critique or build upon Piaget's foundational ideas. **Key Themes and Concepts:** 1. **Piaget's Influence on Developmental Psychology:** - Piaget's theory is rooted in **constructivism**, emphasizing how children actively construct knowledge through interaction with their environment. - Four core assumptions defined his work: - **Action Realism:** Cognition develops through active exploration. - **Domain Generality:** Cognitive structures are broad, applying across multiple domains. - **Stages:** Development progresses through fixed, sequential stages. - **Late Representation:** Conceptual thinking and representation emerge after infancy. 2. **Modern Critiques of Piaget:** - Research since the 1980s, including advances in infant studies, has challenged Piaget's assumptions, especially **late representation**, showing that infants exhibit early inferential and representational abilities. - Current theories emphasize either innate (nature) or experience-driven (nurture) factors, moving beyond Piaget\'s **interactionist** middle-ground stance in the nature-nurture debate. 3. **Nine Major Post-Piaget Theories:** - **Core Knowledge:** Innate systems guide learning in specific domains (e.g., Spelke). - **Theory-Theory:** Children act as \"little scientists,\" testing hypotheses from birth (e.g., Gopnik). - **Evolutionary Psychology:** Cognitive abilities are shaped by evolution, focusing on survival mechanisms (e.g., Pinker). - **Information Processing:** Cognition develops incrementally, akin to computer systems (e.g., Siegler). - **Statistical Learning:** Infants use patterns and probabilities to infer knowledge. - **Ecological Psychology:** Learning arises from perception and action without the need for representation (e.g., Gibson). - **Dynamic Systems Theory:** Development emerges from interactions among multiple systems (e.g., Thelen). - **Attachment Theory:** Early social relationships shape cognition and emotion (e.g., Bowlby). - **Neo-Constructivism:** Updates Piaget's constructivism with findings on infant competence (e.g., Karmiloff-Smith). 4. **Historical Context and Intellectual Genealogy:** - Rochat highlights the importance of understanding historical and theoretical roots in psychology. He argues that contemporary ideas often reinterpret or refine old problems, with Piaget's work serving as a historical benchmark. **Conclusion:** Rochat concludes that while modern theories diverge from Piaget's assumptions, his work remains central to understanding developmental psychology's intellectual history. He advocates for incorporating historical awareness to improve scientific inquiry, emphasizing that most contemporary theories owe their momentum to the foundational tensions Piaget introduced. **Veraksa, N., & Samuelsson, I. P. (Eds.) (2022). *Piaget and Vygotsky in XXI Century Discourse in Early Childhood Education*** Published by Springer, this edited volume examines the continued relevance of Jean Piaget's and Lev Vygotsky's developmental theories in early childhood education within the 21st-century context. The book explores how their foundational ideas can be adapted, integrated, and critically analyzed to address modern educational challenges. **Key Themes and Insights:** 1. **Piaget's Constructivism and Modern Application:** - Piaget's emphasis on children as active learners, constructing knowledge through interaction with their environment, remains influential. - The book explores how his ideas on stages of development (sensorimotor, preoperational, etc.) can be applied in contemporary early childhood pedagogy, particularly in fostering curiosity and discovery-based learning. 2. **Vygotsky's Sociocultural Approach:** - Vygotsky's theory of learning as a social process, mediated by language and cultural tools, is highlighted as particularly relevant for collaborative and inclusive educational settings. - The *Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)* and the role of scaffolding are discussed in relation to teacher-led interventions and peer collaboration. 3. **Integration of Piagetian and Vygotskian Ideas:** - The editors explore ways to synthesize Piaget's focus on individual cognitive development and Vygotsky's emphasis on social and cultural contexts, creating a holistic framework for early childhood education. - Case studies demonstrate how this integration can guide practical strategies for fostering cognitive and social-emotional skills. 4. **Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood Education:** - The book addresses current topics such as the impact of digital technologies, diversity in classrooms, and the need for adaptable teaching strategies. - Piagetian and Vygotskian principles are revisited to provide solutions for balancing traditional developmental approaches with modern-day educational demands. 5. **Cross-Cultural Perspectives:** - Contributors analyze how Piaget's and Vygotsky's ideas are interpreted and implemented in diverse cultural and educational contexts, showcasing their global significance. **Conclusion:** The volume underscores the enduring relevance of Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories in early childhood education, emphasizing the need to adapt their ideas to meet the challenges of contemporary classrooms. By bridging constructivist and sociocultural approaches, the book offers a comprehensive framework for fostering holistic child development in a rapidly evolving world. **Bee, H., & Boyd, H. (2014). *The Developing Child* (13th ed.)** This textbook provides a comprehensive exploration of child development, offering a detailed overview of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social growth from conception through adolescence. Designed for students and professionals, the book integrates classic theories and contemporary research, emphasizing the importance of development in understanding human behaviour. **Key Themes:** 1. **Theories of Development:** - Introduces foundational theories, including **Piaget\'s cognitive development**, **Erikson\'s psychosocial stages**, and **Vygotsky\'s sociocultural perspective**. - Explores how these frameworks explain various aspects of child growth and learning. 2. **Domains of Development:** - **Physical Development**: Covers prenatal growth, motor skills, brain development, and health. - **Cognitive Development**: Discusses information processing, language acquisition, and problem-solving. - **Emotional and Social Development**: Explores attachment, self-concept, and social interactions. 3. **Research and Application:** - Incorporates real-world examples and applications, linking theoretical concepts to practical contexts like parenting, education, and therapy. - Highlights contemporary topics such as the impact of technology, cultural diversity, and environmental influences on development. 4. **Developmental Milestones:** - Tracks key milestones in childhood and adolescence, offering insight into typical and atypical development. - Provides tools for identifying delays or challenges in growth. 5. **Nature vs. Nurture:** - Explores the interplay between genetic factors and environmental influences in shaping development. - Discusses the implications of this balance in education, parenting, and healthcare. **Conclusion:** The 13th edition of *The Developing Child* is a well-rounded resource that balances scientific rigor with accessibility. It equips readers with a deep understanding of child development, emphasizing the importance of context, culture, and practical applications in nurturing children's growth. **Berk, L. E. (2019). *Child Development* (10th ed.)** This textbook provides a comprehensive and research-driven exploration of child development, emphasizing the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur from infancy through adolescence. Berk integrates classic theories with cutting-edge research, offering a thorough understanding of the factors that shape human growth and development. **Key Features:** 1. **Theoretical Frameworks:** - Explains foundational theories, including **Piaget\'s cognitive developmental theory**, **Erikson\'s psychosocial theory**, and **Vygotsky\'s sociocultural perspective**. - Introduces ecological systems theory, emphasizing the role of multiple environments on development (Bronfenbrenner). 2. **Domains of Development:** - **Physical Development**: Discusses prenatal growth, brain development, and motor skills. - **Cognitive Development**: Explores information processing, language acquisition, and problem-solving. - **Emotional and Social Development**: Focuses on attachment, self-concept, emotional regulation, and peer relationships. 3. **Research and Practical Application:** - Integrates contemporary research, highlighting its implications for parenting, teaching, and clinical settings. - Discusses cultural and socioeconomic influences on development. 4. **Contemporary Issues:** - Addresses modern challenges such as the impact of technology, the role of diversity, and the effects of trauma and stress. - Examines how public policies influence child development, such as education and healthcare systems. 5. **Developmental Milestones:** - Tracks typical and atypical growth, offering practical tools for identifying and addressing developmental concerns. **Conclusion:** The 10th edition of *Child Development* serves as a foundational text for students and professionals, blending theoretical insights with practical applications. Berk emphasizes the importance of cultural, social, and environmental factors in shaping development, making the book a vital resource for understanding childhood in today's world. READINGS OF JC SUMMARIZED **\"Adolescent Sexuality\" from the AAP Textbook of Pediatric Care (2008)** This chapter explores various aspects of adolescent sexuality, including definitions, behaviour al trends, and their implications for health and development. Key points include: **1. Definitions:** - **Gender Identity**: A person\'s innate sense of being male or female, formed in early childhood. - **Gender Role**: The outward expression of masculinity or femininity, influenced by societal norms. - **Sexual Orientation**: Patterns of physical and emotional attraction. - **Sexual Behaviour** : Actual sexual acts, which may not always align with sexual orientation. **2. Prevalence of Sexual Intercourse:** - A significant percentage of adolescents in developed countries become sexually active during their teenage years. - U.S. adolescents are more likely to engage in early sexual activity, have multiple partners, and experience higher rates of pregnancy and STIs compared to peers in other countries. - Most sexually active teens practice **serial monogamy** but often accumulate multiple partners by the end of adolescence. **3. Noncoital Sexual Behaviour s:** - Behaviour s such as oral and anal sex are increasingly practiced among adolescents, even those who report no vaginal intercourse. - These behaviour s carry risks of STIs, highlighting the need for comprehensive sexual education. **4. Masturbation:** - Masturbation is common but under-researched, with boys reporting higher prevalence and frequency than girls. **5. Homosexual Behaviour :** - Studies show a gradual development of sexual orientation during adolescence, with uncertainty diminishing as teens age. - Homosexual behaviour is more common in older adolescents, with boys more likely than girls to report such behaviour. - Lesbian identity often develops later, but this pattern is changing with reduced stigma. **6. Implications for Health and Education:** - High-risk sexual behaviour s, such as early sexual initiation and substance use during intercourse, highlight the need for targeted health interventions. - Comprehensive sexual education should address both coital and noncoital behaviour s, as well as promote safe practices and reduce stigma around diverse sexual orientations. This chapter underscores the complexity of adolescent sexuality, emphasizing the importance of supportive, inclusive, and informed approaches in healthcare and education. **Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)** and the critical role of school nurses in addressing this issue. It emphasizes the importance of early identification and intervention for adolescents at risk of substance abuse, particularly during pregnancy. Key points include: 1. **Screening and Referral**: School nurses are encouraged to use screening tools like CRAFFT to identify students who may have substance abuse problems. Two or more \"yes\" answers to specific questions indicate a serious issue that requires referral to treatment programs. 2. **Education and Training**: Many school personnel lack training in recognizing the subtle signs of substance abuse. School nurses can lead educational initiatives to improve awareness and response to these issues. 3. **Tertiary Prevention**: After damage has occurred, the focus shifts to limiting disability and restoring capabilities. School nurses may provide direct services or information about available resources for students affected by FASD. 4. **Behaviour al Challenges**: The document outlines the behaviour al problems associated with FASD, including attention deficits, academic difficulties, and language impairments. 5. **Community Resources**: Keeping information about local substance use treatment services accessible in school settings is vital for outreach and support. Overall, the document underscores the proactive role of school nurses in preventing FASD and supporting affected students through education, screening, and referral to appropriate services **\"Maternal Interactive Behaviour in Early Infancy and Later Attachment\"** examines the relationship between maternal behaviour s during early interactions and the development of attachment security in infants. It emphasizes that individual parental qualities, particularly maternal sensitivity, play a central role in forming early interactive structures. Key points include: 1. **Maternal Sensitivity**: Defined as the ability to perceive, interpret, and respond appropriately to infant signals, maternal sensitivity is identified as a crucial precursor to attachment security, as supported by Ainsworth\'s foundational studies. 2. **Dimensions of Parenting**: The study highlights various dimensions of parenting quality, such as cooperation, body contact, and synchrony, which also contribute to attachment security. However, the specific developmental functions of these components remain under-researched. 3. **Research Methodology**: The study involved videotaping 43 mother-infant dyads during face-to-face interactions at 3 months and assessing attachment security using the Strange Situation procedure at 12 months. 4. **Findings**: Results indicated significant correlations between early maternal sensitivity and later infant behaviour s related to attachment. Specifically, maternal contingency in responding to infant signals was found to be more strongly related to later attachment security than maternal emotional warmth. 5. **Theoretical Implications**: The findings suggest that while emotional warmth is important for fostering closeness, the responsiveness to infant cues is critical for developing secure attachment. The study calls for further research to clarify the roles of different aspects of maternal behaviour in attachment formation. Overall, the document underscores the importance of early maternal interactions in shaping the emotional and attachment outcomes for infants, advocating for a nuanced understanding of maternal behaviour s in developmental psychology. (Summary of 3 PDF and the Word Document)