Developmental Psychology PDF - Conservation, Piaget, and Theories of Mind

PSYCH 102: Developmental Psychology I (6) Conservation What is Conservation? ​ Conservation is the understanding that the quantity of something (e.g., liquid, number of objects) remains the same even when its appearance changes. ​ This concept is studied in developmental psychology, partic...

PSYCH 102: Developmental Psychology I (6) Conservation What is Conservation? ​ Conservation is the understanding that the quantity of something (e.g., liquid, number of objects) remains the same even when its appearance changes. ​ This concept is studied in developmental psychology, particularly in children. Piaget’s Conservation Task ​ Jean Piaget, a famous developmental psychologist, studied how children think and reason. ​ He found that young children (typically under 7 years old) struggle with conservation. Examples of Conservation Tasks 1.​ Liquid Conservation (Juice Task) ○​ A child is shown two identical glasses with the same amount of juice. ○​ The juice from one glass is poured into a taller, thinner glass. ○​ Young children often think the taller glass has more juice, even though no juice was added or removed. 2.​ Number Conservation (Quarters Task) ○​ Two equal rows of quarters are shown, with the same number of coins in each row. ○​ One row is spread out to look longer. ○​ Young children often believe the longer row has more coins, even though the number is unchanged. Why Do Young Children Fail Conservation Tasks? ​ Centration → They focus on only one aspect (e.g., the height of the glass) and ignore others. ​ Irreversibility → They don’t yet understand that changes can be undone. ​ Appearance Over Reality → They believe what they see rather than logical reasoning. When Do Children Develop Conservation? ​ Around age 7 (Concrete Operational Stage), children begin to understand conservation. ​ They realize that changes in shape or arrangement don’t affect quantity. Babies Are "Stupid" Are Babies Really That "Stupid"? ​ In developmental psychology, researchers often joke that babies seem “stupid” because they lack basic survival instincts compared to other animals.  ​ Example: A study placed human babies, chicken chicks, dog puppies, and worm larvae outside in the rain. ○​ Animals (chickens, dogs, worms) sought shelter. ○​ Human babies just lay there, making gurgling noises. ○​ This highlights how helpless human infants are compared to other species. Why Are Human Babies So Helpless? ​ Long Developmental Period → Unlike animals that walk within hours (e.g., gazelles), humans take about a year to learn how to walk. ​ Extreme Dependence → Human infants rely on caregivers for survival for years, unlike most animals that gain independence quickly. ​ Juvenile Psychology → Human brains develop slowly to allow for learning and adaptation to complex environments. Why Does This Happen? ​ Brain vs. Body Trade-off → Humans are born with huge brains, but this comes at the cost of slower physical development. ​ Evolutionary Advantage → This prolonged period of dependency allows for greater learning, problem-solving, and social skills later in life. The Takeaway: While babies may seem "stupid" at birth, this extended period of helplessness is actually a trade-off that allows humans to develop advanced intelligence over time. Why Are Children So "Dumb"? Jean Piaget argued that children aren’t actually dumb instead—“Children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world.” Their development happens in stages, with each stage adding more complexity to their thinking. 1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years) ​ Infants explore the world through sensory experiences and motor actions. ​ Key development: ○​ Object permanence → Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight. ​ Example: A young infant who sees a ball roll out of view thinks it has disappeared. ​ Later, they learn that the ball still exists, even if they can’t see it. ○​ Basic cause-and-effect learning → Babies start understanding how their actions affect the world (e.g., shaking a rattle makes a noise). 2. Preoperational Stage (2-6 years) ​ Children begin using symbols (words, images) to represent objects but lack logical reasoning.  ​ Key characteristics: ○​ Egocentrism → Children struggle to see things from others' perspectives. ○​ Pretend play → They start using imagination (e.g., a banana as a phone). ○​ Struggle with conservation → They think bigger means more (e.g., if you spread out a row of coins, they think there are more coins). 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years) ​ Children develop logical thinking, but only about concrete objects and events. ​ Key abilities: ○​ Understanding conservation → They now realize that appearance does not change quantity (e.g., spreading out coins doesn’t mean there are more coins). ○​ Basic math skills → Can add and subtract logically. ○​ Less egocentric → They begin understanding different perspectives. 4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years - adulthood) ​ Adolescents can think abstractly and hypothetically. ​ Key developments: ○​ Abstract reasoning → Understanding metaphors, hypothetical situations, and complex problem-solving. ○​ Moral reasoning → Thinking beyond personal experience to ethical and philosophical questions. Why Do Humans Develop This Way? ​ Human cognition is more complex than that of other animals. ​ This staged development ensures survival—basic skills come first, and abstract reasoning develops when needed. ​ As Piaget suggested, children aren’t dumb—they are actively learning and adapting to their world. Why Development? Humans are supposed to be the "smart species," so why does it take us so long to develop compared to other animals? This question was explored in a landmark study by Esther Hermann and colleagues in Germany, published in Science, one of the most prestigious journals. The study, sometimes called the "Showdown of the Apes," tested the cognitive abilities of: ​ 100 human toddlers (2.5 years old) ​ 100 chimpanzees (ages 3-20) ​ 40 orangutans These subjects were tested on 38 different cognitive tasks across four domains: 1.​ Spatial memory – Remembering where an object is located. 2.​ Quantity discrimination – Understanding relative amounts. 3.​ Causal reasoning – Predicting what happens if one event leads to another. 4.​ Social learning – Following instructions and imitating others. Key Findings ​ On three of the four domains (spatial memory, quantity discrimination, and causality), chimpanzees performed about as well as human toddlers. ○​ This is surprising given that human toddlers already have larger brains than chimpanzees. ​ Where humans excelled was in social learning. ○​ Toddlers performed at ceiling levels (getting everything right), while chimpanzees performed at chance levels. Chimpanzee Cognitive Abilities ​ Chimps are actually very intelligent in certain domains. ​ One study showed that chimps outperform adult humans in spatial and numerical memory tasks. ○​ In one experiment, numbers flashed briefly on a screen, and then were replaced by squares. ○​ Chimps could accurately recall and select the correct order of numbers, while human adults struggled. Humans and Over-Imitation ​ Where humans truly stand out is in their tendency to over-imitate—copying actions even when they are unnecessary. ​ Example Experiment: ○​ Both toddlers and bonobos were shown how to open a box containing a treat. ○​ In one condition, the demonstrator added unnecessary gestures (e.g., waving their hand like a magician before pulling out the peg).  ○​ Every single toddler copied the entire sequence exactly. ○​ Bonobos, on the other hand, ignored the unnecessary actions and focused only on the relevant steps. What Does This Tell Us? ​ Humans are unique because of their social learning abilities. ​ Unlike other animals, humans don’t just learn efficiently—we copy exactly, even when it’s not necessary. ​ This ability to imitate and pass down knowledge is what allows humans to build cultures, technologies, and societies over generations. So Why Does Human Development Take So Long? 1.​ Social Learning Over Trial-and-Error → Humans aren’t just problem solvers; we learn by watching and copying others. 2.​ Brain Development Trade-Off → Our brains take longer to develop because they are built for flexibility and learning from others. 3.​ Culture and Accumulative Learning → Other species rely on individual trial-and-error learning, but humans build on past generations’ knowledge. In Conclusion: Humans may not be the best at raw cognitive abilities like memory or numerical reasoning, but our ability to over-imitate and learn socially is what makes us the "smart species." While other animals learn through trial and error, humans learn through cultural transmission, which allows knowledge to accumulate across generations. We Have So Much More to Learn (From Each Other) Humans are highly attuned to what other humans do—we pay close attention and tend to over-imitate the actions taught to us because humans have much, much more to learn, particularly from each other. A lot of the culture we engage in is complex and often difficult to understand fully. Even though we may not comprehend the underlying causality of certain things, we still see and imitate the actions of others. We are taught to use things in ways that have been figured out by an entire species, even if we don’t understand all the details. Our cultural world is far more complex than any one person could fully grasp. But instead of figuring it all out individually, we inherit knowledge that has been accumulated by others over time, allowing us to participate in and benefit from a culture passed down through generations. Self-awareness and Theory of Mind ​ Theory of Mind is the ability to understand our own mind and the minds of others. It's the ability to predict and recognize what others are thinking and feeling. ​ Self-recognition is a key part of human society. It’s essential for survival and for interacting with others. We can distinguish ourselves from others and recognize similar features in others. ​ The "Mark Test" is used to assess self-recognition. It involves marking an animal or child on their face without them knowing and then showing them a mirror. If they touch the mark on their own face, it shows they recognize themselves in the reflection. ​ Humans pass this test, usually by 18-24 months. Great apes (chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, gorillas), elephants, and some birds (like magpies) have also shown the ability to pass this test. ​ This test demonstrates the most rudimentary form of theory of mind—recognizing yourself as an individual separate from others. Big Brain = Theory of Mind? 1.​ Self-recognition and Theory of Mind ○​ Self-recognition is a basic form of theory of mind, the ability to understand and predict the minds of oneself and others. ○​ It’s a rare ability in the animal kingdom and requires a high level of intelligence to figure out. 2.​ Animal Examples and the Mirror Test ○​ Bear Example: Bears fail the self-recognition test. They look in the mirror but don’t recognize themselves; instead, they just interact with the mirror. ○​ This shows that self-recognition is not universal in the animal kingdom and is a complex cognitive ability. Brain-to-Body Size Ratio ​ There’s a general linear relationship between body size and brain size: bigger animals have bigger brains. ​ However, some animals (like humans) have brains much larger than expected for their body size, suggesting their brains are designed for more complex functions. The Brain-Size Chart ​ Average Animals: Animals like cats have brains that are proportional to their body size, falling on the "normal" line of the chart. ​ Above the Line: Animals like humans, dolphins, and primates have larger brains for their body size. These animals also show signs of theory of mind (self-recognition, understanding others' minds). ​ Below the Line: Animals like rats and rabbits have smaller brains for their body size, and they do not show advanced theory of mind abilities. Humans and Large Brains ​ Humans are the furthest off the line on the chart, indicating that we have the largest brains relative to body size, particularly for social intelligence and theory of mind. The Correlation Between Large Brains and Theory of Mind ​ Brain Size and Social Intelligence: Large brains likely support complex cognitive abilities like theory of mind. Evolutionary pressures that favored social intelligence may have driven the growth of larger brains in these species. ​ Both Factors: The development of the theory of mind and brain size may influence each other, with large brains either enabling or evolving as a result of the need for social intelligence. Theory of Mind (ToM) Levels Theory of Mind refers to the ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives, which may differ from our own. The levels below describe how this ability develops and increases in sophistication. As you move up the levels, you start to understand more complex interactions involving other people's thoughts and perspectives. Level 0: No Self-Recognition ​ Description: At this level, there is no understanding of the self or other minds. This means there's no recognition that the individual has thoughts or that others have thoughts of their own. ​ Examples: Animals like sheep, ants, or even computers (which may not yet have self-awareness). These entities do not show any recognition of their own mental state or that of others. Level 1: Self-Recognition ​ Description: At this stage, the individual recognizes that they have a mind and can distinguish themselves from their environment or others. However, they do not yet understand that others have minds separate from their own. ​ Key Feature: Self-awareness — the ability to recognize oneself, like in the mirror test. ​ Examples: Chimpanzees, gorillas, dolphins. Humans typically pass this around age 2, but this level is mostly focused on self-recognition, not understanding others' perspectives. Level 2: Recognition of Other Minds ​ Description: This level marks the recognition that other people have minds and that their minds can have different beliefs or perspectives from one’s own. It's understanding that someone else can think differently, believe different things, or hold different information. ​ Test Example: The Sally-Anne False Belief Task: A child is told a story where Sally places a marble in a basket, and Ann moves it when Sally is not looking. The child must predict where Sally will look for the marble. A child who understands that Sally does not know the marble has been moved is demonstrating level 2.  ​ Examples: Most neurotypical humans, some higher primates (like certain chimpanzees). At this stage, children typically start to understand false beliefs (around ages 4-5). Level 3: I Know That You Know What I Know ​ Description: This level goes beyond recognizing that others have different beliefs. Now, you understand that others can think about what you are thinking. This means you understand that someone else might know something about you and form beliefs based on what they know. ​ Example: If a friend thinks you don’t like them based on something you did, you can understand that your friend has a belief about your feelings, and you can predict their reaction based on that. ​ Key Feature: It's a meta-cognitive level, where you're not just thinking about someone's beliefs, but you're thinking about how they think about yours. Level 4: Understanding Complex Perspectives (Shakespeare Play Example) ​ Description: At this stage, you can handle more complex social dynamics. You can understand that people might have multiple layers of belief, such as in a drama or complex social situation, where individuals hold different beliefs about each other. ​ Example: In a Shakespeare play (like Hamlet), you understand that one character, say Hamlet, knows something that the other character (e.g., the uncle) does not. This creates tension because you know that Hamlet’s actions are influenced by his understanding of what the uncle believes. ​ Key Feature: Understanding complicated interpersonal relationships and social games. Level 5: Advanced Theory of Mind ​ Description: This is a highly advanced level where most neurotypical individuals can operate. You can navigate complex social situations where people’s beliefs and intentions are hidden or subtle. ​ Example: This could include understanding someone's emotional states that are not explicitly stated or dealing with ambiguous social cues. ​ Key Feature: People at this level can use strategic thinking to manipulate or influence others based on an understanding of their beliefs and mental states. Level 6: Very Advanced Theory of Mind ​ Description: This is the highest level of theory of mind, where individuals can recognize incredibly complex social dynamics. People at this level can anticipate how others will behave or think, even when it’s subtle or based on long-term patterns of behavior. ​ Example: A person can predict complex emotional dynamics in interactions — for example, understanding that someone might be feigning disinterest to avoid appearing too eager, or knowing that someone might feel insecure even when they don't express it directly. ​ Key Feature: Extremely high levels of empathy and self-awareness, often seen in individuals who are very introspective or socially adept. Play and Its Importance in Developing Theory of Mind ​ What is Play? ○​ Play is a common behavior in mammals, including humans. It’s not just for fun, but plays a crucial role in development, particularly in learning how to understand other people’s perspectives (known as theory of mind). ​ Why Do Animals Play? ○​ Animals, like baby bears, engage in play behaviors such as climbing hills for fun, which seems like a waste of energy. But this behavior has an evolutionary purpose: it helps animals develop important skills they’ll need to survive. ○​ Fun isn’t the end goal—play is fun because it helps with survival and development. ​ The Role of Play in Development: ○​ Play encourages the brain to develop skills like social understanding, problem-solving, and managing emotions. ○​ It teaches animals and humans how to interact with others, set boundaries, and negotiate roles in social situations, helping them understand how far they can push others in a way that keeps everyone enjoying the activity. Research Study on Rats and Play (Aakongen’s Study) ​ Study Setup: ○​ A psychologist, Aakongen, studied rats to understand the importance of play. ○​ Group 1: Rats raised in isolation (no play with others). ○​ Group 2: Rats allowed to engage in rough play with other rats for an hour a day. ​ Findings: ○​ Group 2 (the playful rats) showed normal development in exploring new environments and handling stress.  ○​ Group 1 (isolated rats) were more fearful of new environments and didn’t explore as much, showing that play is necessary for learning how to deal with new situations and threats. ​ Brain Development: ○​ The difference between the two groups was seen in the development of the orbital frontal cortex, a brain region that plays a role in decision-making and social behavior. ○​ Rats that didn’t play (Group 1) had underdeveloped orbital frontal cortices, while the playful rats (Group 2) had normal brain development. Connection to Humans and Social Intelligence ​ Social Intelligence and Play: ○​ Humans with a larger orbital frontal cortex tend to have larger, more meaningful social networks. ○​ People with a larger orbital frontal cortex are better at understanding other people’s perspectives, making them more socially intelligent. ​ Why Play Matters for Social Development: ○​ Through play, humans and animals learn important social skills, like negotiating, setting boundaries, and understanding others. ○​ Play helps us learn how to interact with others in ways that are enjoyable for everyone involved. Free Unsupervised Play Definition & Nature ​ Play is not a structured game with an umpire; it is the imaginative, self-directed, self-refereed type of play that kids generally develop when they are unsupervised. Freedom to Quit ​ Children must have the freedom to quit the game whenever they feel it’s no longer fun. This freedom is crucial because it forces each player to negotiate and ensure that "everybody still wants to play." Key Points on the Function of Play ​ Learning Through Play: ○​ Kids learn “how far they can push” the game so that everyone continues to have fun. ○​ This negotiation of rules and understanding of others’ perspectives is a vital part of developing social skills. ​ Self-Regulation: ○​ Unsupervised play lets children decide for themselves when to stop or modify their behavior, learning to manage their own internal limits. ○​ “Nobody but the child himself or herself knows the right dose.” — Peter Gray The Role of Fear in Play: ​ Moderate Fear is Essential: ○​ Children seem to be “dosing themselves with moderate degrees of fear,” which teaches them to handle both physical and emotional challenges. ○​ Key Quote (Peter Gray):​ "All such activities are fun to the degree that they are moderately frightening. If too little fear is induced, the activity is boring; if too much is induced, it becomes no longer play but terror." Balancing Act: ​ Too little fear: The play becomes boring. ​ Too much fear: The play turns into terror. ​ The “right dose” of fear is self-determined by the child during free play. Impact of Over-Supervision: ​ When play is over-supervised, children lose the opportunity to negotiate rules and determine their own limits. ​ This over-structuring robs them of essential skills needed to learn self-regulation, risk assessment, and social negotiation. Cultural Observations: ​ Peter Gray notes that the “golden age of childhood” occurred before massive impositions of structure (e.g., the 1950s) when children played freely. ​ Recent trends (e.g., during the pandemic) show that free play has declined, which may impact the development of social and emotional skills. Antifragile (Nassim Nicholas Taleb) Definition: ​ Fragile things break or deteriorate under stress, chaos, or disorder (e.g., a crystal chalice that shatters when dropped or flicked). ​ Resilient things resist stress without getting worse (e.g., a plastic cup that doesn’t break when dropped). ​ Antifragile is the concept of something that gets better when exposed to stress—not only does it not break, it improves. Examples in Nature Bones: ​ Our bones are antifragile because they require some stress (like weight-bearing exercise) to become stronger. ​ Not too much stress: Jumping off a two-story building will break them, but zero stress would lead them to atrophy. Evolution: ​ Evolution is described as an antifragile system because it requires death and stress to drive natural selection, which leads to the creation of complex, adaptive forms (like humans and the entire biological ecosystem). Hygiene Hypothesis ("Let Them Eat Dirt"): ​ Once we discovered germs, society tried to eliminate them—especially protecting kids and pregnant women (e.g., "pregnant women should eat peanuts"). ​ This overprotection made children fragile (more prone to allergies and immune problems) rather than strong. ​ The book “Let Them Eat Dirt” (by B. Brett Finally and Marie-Claire Arrieta) discusses this: proper dosing of stress or “insults” (exposure to germs) can build stronger, antifragile immune systems. Analogy with Trees: ​ In a perfect, controlled environment, trees may grow tall and quickly but become very brittle. ​ After testing, researchers found that the trees needed wind (moderate stress) to develop strong, resilient trunks—just as bones need moderate stress. Children are Antifragile: ​ Kids require some stress, struggle, and even heartbreak to become stronger and more resilient. ​ However, too much stress (like the equivalent of jumping off a three-story building or severe bullying) is harmful. Philosophical Summing-Up: As Nietzsche famously said, “What doesn't kill you makes you stronger.” This encapsulates the antifragile concept: moderate challenges lead to growth and improved resilience.