First Semester Biology Study Guide 2024 PDF

1`PIntroduction to Biology: (1.3: 22-29) 1. What does it mean to be “alive”? a. Being "alive" means exhibiting key characteristics such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, homeostasis, and the ability to evolve. 2. Students will organize levels...

1`PIntroduction to Biology: (1.3: 22-29) 1. What does it mean to be “alive”? a. Being "alive" means exhibiting key characteristics such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, homeostasis, and the ability to evolve. 2. Students will organize levels of biology from atom to biosphere. (Review these levels of organization) a. Atoms molecules to cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere. Process of Science: (Intro-1.2: 6-21) 3. What is a scientific theory + tested/supported? a. A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that has been repeatedly tested and supported by a wide range of observations and experimental evidence. 4. Identify and be able to create a scientific protocol a. Observation i. What do you notice? 1. Example: You observe that plants in your garden grow taller when placed in direct sunlight compared to those in the shade. 2. Plants in my garden seem to grow taller with more sunlight exposure. b. Question i. What are you trying to find out? 1. Example: Does the amount of sunlight affect the growth of plants? 2. Does sunlight affect plant growth? c. Hypothesis i. What do you think will happen? 1. Example: If plants receive more sunlight, then they will grow taller because sunlight provides energy for photosynthesis. 2. If plants receive more sunlight, then they will grow taller because sunlight is essential for photosynthesis. d. Independent variable i. What will you change? 1. Example: The amount of sunlight each plant receives (e.g., direct sunlight vs. shaded area). 2. The amount of sunlight (direct sunlight vs. shaded area). e. Dependent variable i. What will you measure? 1. Example: The height of the plants after a certain period of time. 2. The height of the plants. f. Controlled variable i. What will you keep the same? 1. Example: Type of plant, amount of water, soil type, and the container size. 2. Type of plant, soil type, amount of water, container size, temperature. g. Control trial i. What is your baseline comparison? 1. Example: A set of plants kept in a completely shaded area to compare with those in direct sunlight. 2. Plants placed in a completely shaded area to measure growth without sunlight. h. Data i. What results will you collect? 1. Example: Record the height of the plants in centimeters after 2 weeks of exposure to sunlight or shade. 2. Measure the height of the plants after 2 weeks. i. Conclusion. i. What did the data show?  1. Example: The plants in direct sunlight grow 15 cm taller on average than those in the shade, supporting the hypothesis that more sunlight leads to increased plant growth. 2. The plants exposed to more sunlight grew taller, supporting the hypothesis that sunlight promotes plant growth 5. (Be sure to be able to identify these terms in a written passage about an experiment or when looking at a graph). 6. compare a. Quantitative i. Involves numerical values that can be measured and analyzed statistically, such as height, weight, or temperature b. Qualitative data. i. Is descriptive and involves non-numeric characteristics, like color, texture, or behavior, often analyzed for patterns or themes Basic Science Skills: (Appendix in book and class materials)** 7. Scatter plot a. Using correct placement and labels on the axes, and title. b. Practice of a scatter plot or line graph: Experimental Data to Graph Completed Graph 8. Bar graph a. Using the correct placement and labels on the axes, title, SEM bars. b. Practice of a bar graph: Experimental Data to Graph Completed Graph 9. Students will determine the correct type of graph based on the data provided. 10. Students will create a reasonable claim supported with evidence and reasoning when given a set of data, an article, an image, or a graph. ******** THIS WILL BE ON THE TEST******** a. Claim i. "Increased sunlight exposure leads to taller plant growth." b. Evidence i. The graph shows that plants exposed to 6 hours of sunlight per day grew an average of 15 cm in height, while plants exposed to only 2 hours of sunlight grew only 8 cm. c. Reasoning i. The plants with more sunlight had more energy for photosynthesis, which likely contributed to their increased growth. Since sunlight is essential for photosynthesis, which produces energy for plant development, it logically follows that the plants with greater exposure to sunlight grew taller. Introduction to Ecology; Weather/Climate, and Biomes (3.1-3.3 p. 78-97) 1. Students will be able to distinguish and order the following levels of classification in ecology. a. Organisms i. An individual living entity, such as a single plant, animal, or microbe. b. Population i. A group of organisms of the same species living and interacting in a particular area. c. Community i. Different populations of various species living and interacting in the same area. d. Ecosystem i. A community of living organisms interacting with their physical environment, including factors like air, water, and soil. e. Biome i. A large geographic biotic unit defined by climate, vegetation, and the organisms that live there, such as a desert, forest, or grassland. f. Biosphere i. The global sum of all ecosystems, encompassing all living organisms and their interactions with the Earth’s atmosphere, land, and water. 2. Students will describe the major terrestrial biomes. (Be familiar with the general description of each) a. Tropical RainForest  i. Found near the equator, tropical rainforests arbe warm, humid areas with year-round rainfall, supporting a vast diversity of plants and animals. b. Tropical Grassland/Savanna/Shrubland i. Tropical grasslands, such as savannas, experience warm temperatures and seasonal rainfall, with scattered trees and abundant large herbivores. c. Desert i. Deserts are extremely dry regions with extreme temperature fluctuations and sparse vegetation, including drought-resistant plants and animals adapted to the harsh conditions. d. Temperate Grassland i. Temperate grasslands have hot summers, cold winters, and moderate rainfall, dominated by grasses and home to large herbivores and predators. e. Temperate Forest i. Temperate forests have four distinct seasons, moderate rainfall, and deciduous trees, supporting a variety of plant and animal species. f. Boreal Forest/Taiga i. The boreal forest, or taiga, is a cold, coniferous forest biome with long winters, short summers, and a variety of cold-adapted species. g. Tundra i. The tundra is a cold, treeless biome found in the Arctic or high mountain tops, characterized by permafrost and low-growing vegetation. Populations: (5.1 p. 142-151) 3. Students will identify and define measures used to describe population ecology: a. Distribution i. Refers to the spatial arrangement of individuals within a habitat, showing how they are spread across an area. b. Density i. The number of individuals in a population per unit area or volume, indicating how crowded the population is. c. Geographic Range i. The total area or region where a population can be found, influenced by environmental and ecological factors. d. Age Structure i. The distribution of individuals within a population across different age groups, which can indicate future growth trends. e. Growth Rate i. The rate at which a population's size changes over time, determined by birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration. 4. Students will explain how changes will impact a population. a. Birth i. An increase in birth rates leads to population growth as more individuals are added, while a decrease in birth rates slows population expansion or even causes a decline. b. Death i. An increase in death rates leads to population decline as individuals die faster than they can be replaced, while a decrease in death rates promotes population growth and stability. c. Immigration i. When individuals move into a population from other areas, immigration increases the population size, potentially bringing new genetic diversity, resources, or competition. d. Emigration i. When individuals leave a population, emigration decreases the population size and can impact the population's genetic diversity, resources, and dynamics. 5. Compare- using the term carrying capacity correctly.  a. exponential i. Occurs without considering carrying capacity b. logistic growth i. Accounts for carrying capacity, leading to a more realistic model where the population stabilizes over time. 6. Examples of + contribute to the a. limiting factors i. Food Availability 1. Limited food resources can reduce the growth of a population as individuals may struggle to find enough nutrients. ii. Water Supply 1. A lack of access to sufficient water can limit the size and health of a population, especially in arid regions. iii. Space 1. Overcrowding can lead to competition for space, which may limit reproduction and survival. iv. Climate 1. Extreme weather conditions, such as droughts or harsh winters, can reduce population size by creating inhospitable living conditions. v. Disease 1. High population density can facilitate the spread of diseases, limiting the survival and reproduction of individuals. b. carrying capacity of a population. i. Refers to the maximum number of individuals of a species that an environment can sustainably support based on available resources. When limiting factors (like food, water, and space) are in balance with the population, the population size stabilizes at or near the carrying capacity. Communities (6.1; 6.3; p. 174-181 and 186-188) 7. Compare a. Habitat i. The organism's physical space b. niche. i. Refers to how the organism interacts with its environment and other species within it. 8. Students will describe with illustration types of relationships. a. Mutualism i. A relationship where both organisms benefit. 1. Example: Bees and flowers. Bees collect nectar from flowers for food while helping to pollinate the flowers, enabling them to reproduce. a. Bee (benefits) → Collects nectar. b. Flower (benefits) → Receives pollination. b. Commensalism i. A relationship where one organism benefits, and the other is neither helped nor harmed. 1. Example: Barnacles attaching to the shell of a turtle. The barnacle benefits by getting access to nutrient-rich water while the turtle is unaffected. a. Barnacle (benefits) → Gets nutrients from water while on the turtle. b. Turtle (neutral) → No effect. c. Parasitism i. A relationship where one organism benefits at the expense of the other. 1. Example: A tick feeding on a dog. The tick gains nutrients by feeding on the dog’s blood, while the dog may suffer from blood loss or infection. a. Tick (benefits) → Feeds on the dog’s blood. b. Dog (harmed) → Loses blood, may get infected. d. Predator/ prey i. A relationship where one organism (the predator) hunts and kills another (the prey) for food.  1. Example: A lion hunting a zebra. The lion benefits by gaining food, while the zebra is killed. a. Lion (benefits) → Hunts and eats the zebra. b. Zebra (harmed) → Killed by the lion. e. Herbivore/ autotroph i. A relationship where herbivores eat plants (autotrophs). 1. Example: A rabbit eating grass. The rabbit gains food from the grass, which is an autotroph that produces its own food through photosynthesis. a. Rabbit (benefits) → Eats the grass for food. b. Grass (neutral) → May be harmed but is not killed. 9. Identify + describe how they regulate the community a. keystone species i. Are species that play a critical role in maintaining the structure and function of an ecosystem, and their impact on the community is disproportionately large relative to their abundance or biomass. 1. Predators a. Keystone predators regulate prey populations, preventing any one species from becoming overly dominant and maintaining biodiversity, such as sea otters controlling sea urchin numbers in kelp forests. 2. Herbivores a. Keystone herbivores influence plant communities by grazing on certain species, which can prevent overgrowth of specific plants and maintain ecological balance, like elephants in savannas 3. Pollinators a. Keystone pollinators, such as bees and bats, ensure the reproduction of many plants, thereby supporting plant diversity and the food sources for other species 4. Decomposers a. Keystone decomposers break down organic matter, recycling nutrients that support plant growth and the overall functioning of the ecosystem. 10. Explain a. how biodiversity impacts the health + resilience of an ecosystem. ** i. Enhances the health and resilience of an ecosystem by ensuring stability, adaptability to changes, and the ability to recover from disturbances through diverse species fulfilling various ecological roles. Ecosystems (4.1-4.2; pages 112-122) 11. Students will be able to create or explain a food chain or food web including the following: f. Primary producer/autotrophs i. Photosynthesis 1. The process by which primary producers (autotrophs) capture sunlight to synthesize food, providing the foundation of energy for the entire food chain. g. Consumer/heterotrophs i. Primary 1. These are the first level of consumers, such as rabbits or deer, which feed directly on primary producers (plants) to obtain energy. ii. Secondary 1. These consumers eat both plants and animals. For example, a raccoon or human, which feeds on plants (primary producers) and animals (herbivores). iii. Tertiary  1. These are top predators that consume secondary consumers. An example is a lion or eagle, which preys on herbivores or omnivores. iv. Herbivores/Omnivores/Carnivores 1. Organisms like humans or bears that eat both plant material (primary producers) and animal material v. Carnivores 1. Organisms, like wolves or hawks, that primarily eat other animals (herbivores or omnivores) to get their energy. vi. Decomposers 1. These organisms, such as fungi or bacteria, break down dead plant and animal matter, recycling nutrients back into the soil to support primary producers. 12. Students will explain a trophic level pyramid and apply the terms in the previous question to each level. a. The trophic level pyramid shows the hierarchical structure of energy transfer in an ecosystem, with primary producers at the base, followed by primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, and the important role of decomposers at every level.** Basic Chemistry (2.1; p. 42-46) 1. Identify the number using the periodic table including the atomic mass and atomic number.** a. Electrons i. Atomic Number b. Protons i. Atomic Number c. Neutrons i. Atomic Mass (rounded) - Atomic Number 2. Explain each of the subatomic particles. a. Location + Basic characteristics i. Protons 1. Location: In the nucleus (the central core) of the atom. 2. Basic Characteristics a. Charge: Positive (+1) b. Mass: Relatively heavy, approximately 1 atomic mass unit (amu) c. Role: The number of protons in an atom determines the atomic number, which identifies the element. For example, an atom with 6 protons is carbon. Protons contribute significantly to the mass of the atom. ii. Neutrons 1. Location: In the nucleus alongside protons 2. Basic Characteristics a. Charge: Neutral (no charge) b. Mass: Similar to protons, approximately 1 atomic mass unit (amu) c. Role: Neutrons help stabilize the nucleus by balancing the repulsive forces between positively charged protons. The number of neutrons can vary in isotopes of an element, affecting the atomic mass but not the identity of the element. iii. Electrons iv. Location: In the electron cloud or orbitals that surround the nucleus v. Basic Characteristics 1. Charge: Negative (-1) 2. Mass: Extremely small, about 1/1836th of the mass of a proton or neutron 3. Role: Electrons are involved in chemical bonding and electrical conductivity. The number of electrons in an atom, especially in the outer shell (valence electrons), determines its chemical behavior and reactivity. 3. Describe** a. Element i. Pure substance of one type of atom. b. Compound i. Substance formed by chemically combining different elements.  c. Molecule i. Two or more atoms bonded together. d. Atom i. Basic unit of matter. e. Isotope i. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. f. Ion i. Charged atom or molecule due to loss or gain of electrons. 4. Periodic table a. Compare elements by size and number electrons in the outer (valence) shell. i. Atomic Size 1. Decreases across a period (from left to right) 2. Increases down a group (from top to bottom) ii. Valence Electrons iii. Increase across a period (from left to right) iv. Stay the same down a group. 5. Compare the following bonds and interactions. a. Ionic bonds i. Electrons are transferred from one atom to another, creating charged ions. b. Covalent bonds i. Electrons are shared between atoms. Can be polar (unequal sharing) or non-polar (equal sharing). 1. Polar covalent bonds ** a. Electrons are shared unequally, leading to partial charges. 2. Non-polar covalent bonds** a. Electrons are shared equally, with no charge separation. c. Intermolecular attractions: Hydrogen Bonds i. A weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom, often between molecules. Water Chemistry (2.2; p. 47-51) 6. Describe models that illustrate the basic principles of water chemistry including: a. Adhesion i. Water sticking to other surfaces (e.g., water climbing up a plant stem). b. Cohesion i. Water molecules sticking to each other (e.g., water forming droplets). c. High surface tension i. The ability of water to resist external force (e.g., insects walking on water). d. High specific heat i. Water heating up slowly (e.g., large bodies of water regulating climate). e. High heat of vaporization i. Water requires a lot of heat to evaporate (e.g., sweating to cool the body). f. Less dense as a solid i. Ice floating on water (e.g., icebergs in the ocean). g. Excellent solvent i. Water dissolving substances like salt (e.g., salt dissolving in water). 7. Describe + explain how they are essential to understand the chemistry of water. a. hydrogen bonds  i. Essential because they contribute to water's unique properties, such as high surface tension, high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, the ability to dissolve many substances, and its lower density as a solid, all of which are crucial for supporting life. 8. Use the terms correctly. a. Mixture i. A combination of two or more substances that are not chemically bonded, such as sand and water. b. Solution i. A homogeneous mixture in which one substance (the solute) is dissolved in another (the solvent), like salt dissolved in water. c. Solute i. The substance that is dissolved in a solution, such as sugar in tea. d. Solvent i. The substance in which the solute dissolves, like water in a sugar-water solution. e. Suspension i. A heterogeneous mixture in which solid particles are dispersed but not dissolved in a liquid, such as sand in water, where the particles settle over time. 9. Explain a. Why an understanding of water chemistry is essential for understanding biology. i. An understanding of water chemistry is essential for biology because water's unique properties, like its solvent ability, high specific heat, and hydrogen bonding, support vital biological processes such as nutrient transport, temperature regulation, and cellular function. 10. Explain a. How the pH scale works as they identify the strength of an acid or base. i. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with values below 7 indicating acids (more hydrogen ions), values above 7 indicating bases (more hydroxide ions), and 7 being neutral, allowing the strength of acids and bases to be identified. Chemistry of Life: (2.3-2.4 p. 52-61)** 11. Identify the basic characteristics, functions, and groups of carbohydrates. a. 1:2:1 ratio of Carbon: Hydrogen: Oxygen b. Simple sugars i. Monosaccharides 1. The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit. 2. Glucose, fructose, and galactose, all of which can serve as energy sources. ii. Disaccharides 1. Carbohydrates formed by two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond 2. Sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose + glucose). c. Complex carbohydrates i. Glycogen 1. A polysaccharide used for energy storage in animals, primarily stored in the liver and muscles. 2. Serves as a quick source of energy when needed. ii. Cellulose 1. A polysaccharide that provides structural support in plant cell walls. 2. Gives strength and rigidity to plant cells, making it an important component of plant structure. iii. Chitin 1. A polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and insects, and in the cell walls of fungi. 2. Provides structural support and protection. 12. Identify the basic characteristics, functions, and groups of lipids. ** a. Hydrophobic  a. Lipids are hydrophobic, meaning they do not dissolve in water due to their non-polar nature. b. Contain less oxygen and more carbon and hydrogen (non-polar) a. Lipids have long carbon-hydrogen chains or rings with fewer oxygen atoms, making them non-polar and insoluble in water. c. Fats and oils a. Fats and oils, known as triglycerides, are used by organisms for long-term energy storage and insulation. d. Steroids a. Steroids are lipids with a four-ring structure that regulate biological processes and maintain cell membrane integrity. e. Phospholipids a. Phospholipids consist of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group, forming the structural foundation of cell membranes. 13. Describe the parts, common examples, and general chemistry of Nucleic Acids.** a. DNA a. DNA is a double-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides that stores and transmits genetic information in cells. b. RNA a. RNA is a single-stranded molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis. c. ATP a. ATP is an energy carrier molecule with three phosphate groups that powers cellular processes. d. Nucleotide: Sugar, base, and phosphate a. A nucleotide consists of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base, forming the building blocks of nucleic acids. e. Base a. The nitrogenous base in a nucleotide can be adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, or uracil, which pairs specifically in DNA or RNA to encode genetic information. f. Phosphate a. The phosphate group in a nucleotide forms the backbone of nucleic acids and is crucial for linking nucleotides in chains. 14. Explain how nucleic acids are used to store and transmit information. ** a. DNA RNA Proteins a. Nucleic acids store and transmit information by encoding genetic instructions in DNA, which is transcribed into RNA, and then translated into proteins that perform essential cellular functions. 15. Describe (model from cell unit)** a. How ATP can store energy i. ATP stores energy in the high-energy bonds between its three phosphate groups, which can be broken to release energy when needed by cells. b. How when the energy is released it becomes ADP. ** i. When ATP releases energy, it loses one phosphate group, converting into ADP (adenosine diphosphate), which has two phosphate groups instead of three. 16. Identify the basic characteristics and functions ** a. proteins. (shape→ function) i. Proteins are made of amino acids and their specific three-dimensional shape determines their function, such as catalyzing reactions, providing structural support, or defending against pathogens. 17. Use the terms:  a. chemical reaction i. A chemical reaction is a process in which reactants are transformed into products through the breaking and forming of chemical bonds. b. Reactants i. Reactants are the starting substances in a chemical reaction that undergo change to form products. c. Products i. Products are the substances formed as a result of a chemical reaction after the reactants have been transformed. d. Catalyst i. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy, without being consumed or altered in the process. e. Substrate i. A substrate is the specific substance upon which an enzyme acts in a biochemical reaction. 18. Describe a. enzymes i. proteins that speed up reactions. 19. Describe a. How the shape of a protein can change by temperature and pH. i. The shape of a protein can change (denature) due to extreme temperatures or pH levels, which disrupt the weak bonds holding its structure, causing it to lose its functional conformation. 20. Model and describe a. Enzyme can be used to speed up a reaction i. An enzyme is a biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy, allowing reactions to occur more quickly and efficiently in living organisms. b. Explain the active site i. The active site is a specific region on an enzyme where the substrate binds; its shape and chemical environment are tailored to fit the substrate, enabling the enzyme to catalyze the reaction. c. Substrate i. A substrate is the molecule upon which an enzyme acts; it binds to the enzyme's active site, where it is converted into products through the enzyme's catalytic action. d. Idea of an induced fit model Cell Structure (8.2 p. 248-259; 21.2 as a reference) 1. Identify and describe a typical prokaryotic cell. a. A typical prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled organism without a membrane-bound nucleus, containing a nucleoid region with DNA, ribosomes, a plasma membrane, and often a cell wall, with some cells featuring flagella or pili for movement and attachment. 2. Identify the basic function and structure found in a eukaryotic cell.** a. Nucleus (nuclear envelope) i. The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and is enclosed by a nuclear envelope that regulates the movement of substances in and out of the nucleus. b. Ribosome i. Ribosomes are responsible for synthesizing proteins by translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into amino acid sequences. c. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) i. The ER is a network of membranes that assists in protein and lipid synthesis, with the rough ER having ribosomes and the smooth ER involved in lipid production and detoxification. d. Golgi Apparatus i. The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or transport to other organelles. e. Cytoplasm i. The cytoplasm is the gel-like substance inside the cell membrane where organelles are suspended and most cellular processes occur. f. Plasma membrane i. The plasma membrane controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell and provides protection and structure. g. Lysosomes (will not have to identify in a picture, but by a definition) i. Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris. h. Mitochondria i. Mitochondria generate ATP through cellular respiration and have their own DNA and ribosomes. i. Vesicles (will not have to identify in a picture, but by a definition) i. Vesicles are small membrane-bound sacs that transport materials within or out of the cell. j. Central Vacuole i. The central vacuole in plant cells stores water, nutrients, and waste products while maintaining turgor pressure. k. Chloroplasts i. Chloroplasts capture sunlight and convert it into chemical energy through photosynthesis in plant cells. l. Cell wall i. The cell wall is a rigid outer layer found in plants and some organisms that provides structure and protection. m. Cytoskeleton i. The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that supports the cell, aids in movement, and helps with intracellular organization. n. Centriole i. Centrioles are cylindrical structures that organize microtubules during cell division in animal cells. 3. Describe how organelles work together to create and export proteins from the cell. a. Organelles work together to make and export proteins by the nucleus making instructions (mRNA), ribosomes on the rough ER make the proteins, the Golgi apparatus packages them, and vesicles carry the proteins to the plasma membrane for export.  4. Create models that compare idealized prokaryotic, animal, and plant cells and be able to identify the structure and function of these organelles if given a picture.** i. Prokaryotic Cells 1. Simple, no nucleus, few organelles, DNA is free-floating in the nucleoid. ii. Animal Cells 1. Complex, nucleus, various organelles (e.g., lysosomes, centrioles), no cell wall or chloroplasts. iii. Plant Cells 1. Complex, nucleus, chloroplasts for photosynthesis, cell wall, and large central vacuole for storage and structure. b. Each of these cell types has specific organelles adapted to their function, with prokaryotic cells being simpler and animal and plant cells having more specialized structures for energy production, growth, and reproduction. 5. Identify and describe the components of the plasma membrane. ** a. Phospholipid bilayer i. The phospholipid bilayer forms the core structure of the plasma membrane, with hydrophobic tails facing inward and hydrophilic heads facing outward, creating a selective barrier. b. Proteins i. Membrane proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer and perform functions such as transport, acting as receptors, and providing structural support. c. Cholesterol i. Cholesterol molecules are scattered throughout the membrane, helping to maintain membrane fluidity and stability across different temperatures. d. Carbohydrates i. Carbohydrates are attached to proteins and lipids on the membrane’s outer surface, playing a crucial role in cell recognition and communication. Cell Transport and Cell Communication: (8.3-8.4) 1. Compare and contrast passive transport and active transport. a. Passive transport i. Moves substances across the membrane without using energy, driven by concentration gradients b. Active transport i. Requires energy (usually ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradients. 2. Create models and describe: a. Passive transport i. Simple diffusion 1. A small molecule (e.g., oxygen) moves across the membrane directly, from an area of high concentration to low concentration. ii. Facilitated diffusion 1. A larger molecule (e.g., glucose) binds to a carrier protein on the membrane, which changes shape and transports the molecule into or out of the cell. iii. Osmosis 1. Water molecules move through aquaporin channels from an area of lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration, balancing solute levels inside and outside the cell. b. Active transport i. Pumps 1. A pump protein binds to an ion (e.g., sodium) on one side of the membrane, uses ATP to change shape, and transports the ion to the other side of the membrane against its concentration gradient.  ii. Endocytosis 1. The plasma membrane engulfs extracellular material (such as a particle or liquid), forming a vesicle that is brought into the cell for processing. iii. Exocytosis 1. A vesicle containing substances (e.g., waste or proteins) moves toward and fuses with the cell membrane, releasing its contents outside the cell. 3. Create models after doing experiments that show how concentration of a solute helps move water from a high concentration of water to a low concentration of water through a semipermeable membrane (osmosis). Students will use the terms hypertonic, isotonic, hypertonic in their model and accurately show the movement of water towards the excess solute. (Review graphs and diagrams from our cucumber experiment.) Key Terms to Use in the Model a. Hypertonic: i. A solution with a higher concentration of solute than the inside of the cell (water moves out of the cell). b. Isotonic i. A solution with the same concentration of solute as inside the cell (no net movement of water) c. Hypotonic i. A solution with a lower concentration of solute than inside the cell (water moves into the cell). Model Summary d. Hypertonic Solution i. Water moves out of the cucumber, causing it to shrink. The surrounding solution has a higher concentration of solute and a lower concentration of water e. Isotonic Solution i. No significant change in the cucumber as water moves in and out of the cells at equal rates. f. Hypotonic Solution i. Water moves into the cucumber, causing it to swell. The surrounding solution has more water and less solute than the cucumber cells. Energetics: Enzymes and ATP (9.1 and review 2.4) 4. Create and describe a model that shows the parts of an ATP molecule that can transition to an ADP. a. The model of an ATP molecule shows three phosphate groups attached to a ribose sugar and adenine base, and when ATP loses one phosphate group through hydrolysis, it transitions to ADP (adenosine diphosphate), releasing energy for cellular processes. Cellular Respiration (10.1-10.3) 5. Identify the formula for cellular respiration in both symbols and words. a. In symbols i. 𝐶 6 𝐻 12 𝑂 6 + 6 𝑂 2 → 6 𝐶 𝑂 2 + 6 𝐻 2 𝑂 + Energy (ATP) C 6 ​H 12 ​O 6 ​+6O 2 ​ →6CO 2 ​+6H 2 ​O+Energy (ATP) b. In words i. Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP) Photosynthesis: (9.2-9.3) 6. Compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration. a. Photosynthesis i. Is the process of creating glucose from sunlight b. Cellular respiration i. Is the process of breaking down glucose to release energy 7. Model and describe the specialized structures of a chloroplast which allow it to efficiently do photosynthesis. ** a. Outer Membrane i. The outer membrane is a smooth membrane that acts as a boundary between the chloroplast and the surrounding cell's cytoplasm, helping to maintain the internal environment. b. Inner Membrane i. The inner membrane is selectively permeable and contains transport proteins that regulate the entry and exit of substances needed for photosynthesis. c. Stroma i. The stroma is a fluid-filled space surrounding the thylakoid membranes. It contains enzymes required for the Calvin cycle (the second stage of photosynthesis) and the necessary components for the synthesis of glucose. d. Thylakoid Membranes i. Thylakoids are disc-like structures stacked into grana (singular: granum). The thylakoid membranes house chlorophyll, which captures light energy for the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. These membranes increase the surface area for light absorption e. Chlorophyll i. Chlorophyll is the pigment in the thylakoid membrane that absorbs light energy, particularly in the blue and red wavelengths, and reflects green light, which is why plants appear green. Chlorophyll is critical for the absorption of sunlight f. Grana i. Grana are stacks of thylakoid membranes, where the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur. The high surface area provided by the stacking of thylakoids helps maximize the absorption of light. g. How the Structure Supports Photosynthesis i. The thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll, which is essential for capturing light energy. Their large surface area allows for more light absorption. ii. The stroma houses enzymes necessary for the Calvin cycle, where the captured light energy is converted into glucose. iii. The inner membrane ensures that only essential molecules for photosynthesis can enter and exit the chloroplast. 8. Identify the formula of photosynthesis in both symbols and worlds. a. In symbols i. 6 𝐶 𝑂 2 + 6 𝐻 2 𝑂 + light energy → 𝐶 6 𝐻 12 𝑂 6 + 6 𝑂 2 6CO 2 ​+6H 2 ​O+light energy→C 6 ​H 12 ​O 6 ​+6O 2 ​ b. In words i. Carbon dioxide + Water + Light energy → Glucose + Oxygen 9. Explain how energy flows through the system and matter cycles in a carbon cycle. ** a. In the carbon cycle, energy flows from the sun through producers to consumers and decomposers, while carbon matter cycles between the atmosphere, organisms, and the environment through processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and decomposition.