Qualitative Methods in Media and Communication Course Notes PDF

Course Notes - Qualitative Methods in Media and Communication Week 1: Basics of Qualitative Research Core Focus Uses language to understand concepts based on people's experiences It attempts to create a sense of the larger realm of human relationships Key principles Reality is socially cons...

Course Notes - Qualitative Methods in Media and Communication Week 1: Basics of Qualitative Research Core Focus Uses language to understand concepts based on people's experiences It attempts to create a sense of the larger realm of human relationships Key principles Reality is socially constructed Importance of transparency in research strategies The methods researchers use align with their research question and theoretical frameworks Triangulation: the use of multiple methods to increase the rigour of their analysis and to develop an in-depth understanding of social experience Conceptual elements: Epistemology: how do we know the world (constructivist epistemology - socially constructed) Ontology: raises basic questions about the nature of reality (interpretative - multiple realities depending on the background) Methodology: focuses on how we gain knowledge about the world Research Paradigms Positivism: considers reality to exist and scientific truth to be knowable and finable through rigorous testing that is free from human bias Post-positivist: consider that because people are flawed, they may not be able to understand reality Critical theory: consider reality and truth to be shaped by sociopolitical factors Constructivism: reality is subjective and relative; rejects permanent standards of truth Key research terms Internal validity: how findings correspond to the issue being studied External validity: the extent to which the findings can be generalised and related to similar studies Reliability: the extent to which the findings can be reproduced or replicated by another researcher Qualitative Communication Models Transmission view: communication = sending/transmitting information to control or influence others Focus on effects on audiences (explicit, denotative, meaning) Ritual view: communication = shared beliefs, customs and cultural reinforcement Focus on meaning-making as active participation drawing upon cultural familiarity (implicit, connotative) Example: a newspaper can either disseminate news (transmission) or engage in ritual storytelling Ethics of Qualitative Research Participants rights: Voluntary participation without coercion or deception Protect privacy and confidrialtiy Provide accurate research intentions Historical cases of unethical research: Nazi experiments, Tuskegee syphilis study, Milgram experiment Principles (Flick): Informed consent Deception (to be minimised) Data privacy and accuracy 1  Beneficinece (ensure participant well-being) Justice (balance participant benefits and burdens) Research process 1. Choose a study topic 2. Construct open-ended, specific research questions 3. Gather evidence (statistical relevance not always needed) 4. Analyze and interpret evidence 5. Write a research report (include intro, question, framework, methods, analysis, and references) Reflexivity: researchers must understand how their interpretations of evidence are influenced by their biases Internal Generalisation: when you infer from occasional statements to regular habits or traits of people or institutions Academic Codes of Ethics (ASA, BSA) and institutional review boards (IRBs) now regulate research ethics IRBs and ethics codes may not fully address qualitative research challenges and can sometimes hinder effective research Lecture Four principles of qualitative research 1. Meaning-making NOT numbers - why things happen in a specific way 2. Complexity NOT causal relationships Observe phenomena in a natural context Comprehensive view NOT causal explanation that can be generalised 3. Micro insights NOT macro picture 4. Different epistemological, ontological and methodological positions Research paradigms: set of views and beliefs that researchers use to guide their work Qualitative Language Research questions Concepts Relationships Reflexivity/context Situatedness and intersubjectivity Dominant media and communication paradigms Predicitve: positivism, post-positivism Descriptive: constructivism, the critical tradition Participatory/Cooperative inquiry: researchers are not able to find the perfect answer/exchange with other researchers Situatedness: Knowledge and understanding are shaped by the specific social, cultural, and historical context in which they are produced Intersubjectivity: Shared meaning is created through individual interactions, reflecting collective experiences and perspectives. Qualitative research process - Intentionally choosing theoretical concepts - Methodical process Choices need to be explained, justified and transparent Qualitative research: iterative (researchers collect data, analyse it, reflect, and may return to gather more data or adjust their approach) 2 Methodology: beliefs related to how to study the social world Methods: concrete ways of studying the social world Methods of Data Collection Method of data analysis Case study - Research Ethics Tearoom trade (interpersonal sex in public places) Detailed sexual behaviour of homosexual encounters in public places Participants were largely otherwise living conventional lives Researcher - acted as a lookout; made undisclosed recordings; lied to the police to get license plate information; changed appearance for interviews By Laud Humphreys Week 2: Ethnography and Participant Observation Ethnography: focuses on understanding what people believe and think and how they live their daily lives Grounded in the concept of culture and the relevant context Participant observation: understanding the language, practices and activities of a specific group, culture or institution Fieldwork through which a researcher observes and interacts with others Open-ended and flexible research process Researchers spend extended periods in the community, watching and participating in daily activities, rituals and ceremonies and observing, describing and documenting their actions and experiences Challenges getting access to a group Deciding on a focus for their observations Learning how to document what they hear and see without overtly impacting group dynamics Separating their description of events from their interpretations Negotiating the involvement required to build rapport without abandoning their role as a researcher Avoiding biases based on researchers on gender, race, background Avoid preconceived notions about a culture or group Observer Roles Complete observer: observes from a distance and has no interaction with the people Observer as participant: researchers who are on-site but who distance themselves from those being observed Participant as observer: fully integrated into the culture being studied The presence of a researcher changes the group dynamics and impacts the way people react Complete participant: fully bonded with the organisation, group or culture, adopting its member's values and beliefs and may even abandon his or her research role Field notes - are critical for recording observations, including setting details, participant descriptions and researcher’s reflections Reflexivity - help understand that they may have only limited access to the lives of those being studied, which may impact the analysis Lecture The puzzle of qualitative research 1. Define the puzzle - identify what we know 2. Concentrate on Key Areas - have a clear vision of what we hope to see 3 3. Flexibility in design - be adaptable to unexpected changes 4. Solve the puzzle - a well-crafted research question Elements of a research question Open-ended (no yes/no answers) Answerable (design a question that can be sufficiently answered with existing methods and data) Feasible (consider practicality and resources required for conducting the research) Contains a theoretical concept (integrate a theoretical framework into the research question for a deeper understanding) Interesting Relevant (from an academic & social perspective) Concise Ethical Focused on international topics (align the research question to issues in the global communication field) Tips for developing research questions Rich narrative - captures the stories, experiences, and perspectives of individuals rather than quantifiable data Directions for research - imply the methods to be used, such as interviews, focus, groups or observation Not just attitudes or feelings - go beyond surveying attitudes and emotions to uncover deeper insights Engaging how questions - qualitative research questions often start with “how” to explore processes and experiences Never a relationship of cause and effect (impact of X on Y) - not a good qualitative research question Purposes of Ethnography (participant observation) 1. Capture life as experienced by participants 2. Thick descriptions: interpretations of our own observations > The main conclusion of the study Makes behaviours and experiences meaningful to outsiders by Describing and interpreting observable relationships Between social practices and systems of meaning (example: culture) Based upon first-hand experience and exploration of a cultural setting Blends observations with interpretations (interpretations help to provide contextual significance to the social practices observed) Data is collected in natural settings to capture behaviour as it occurs in the real world by observing, talking and interacting with people 3. Holistic description: refers to a comprehensive and detailed account of a social or cultural phenomenon that captures the full complexity and interconnectedness of various elements within a context Other types of ethnography Digital ethnography: captures the lived digital experiences of participants in chat rooms, forums and virtual reality, often overlapping with other forms of ethnography What we do with digital technologies What we do in a digital environment Autoethnography: an autobiographical genre of writing and research that combines personal experiences with an ethnographic lens, blurring the line between the individual and the cultural Strengths Flexible and emergent design Effective for exploring new topics Can study social processes over time Gives a more detailed and fuller description of the phenomena Powerful research methods in conjunction with others Relatively unobtrusive Can both create new ideas and validate other research Weaknesses Limitations in direct observation 4  Not everything can be directly observed Time-consuming Issues in transferring observation to other settings Dependent on observers' abilities Requires an accounting of researchers' positionality Participant observation: one possible data collection method in ethnographic studies 1. Primary methodological tool Participant observation is often used interchangeably with ethnography and serves as the backbone of the research process 2. Key means for observation 1. Learning and using the local language 2. Listening to conversations 3. Asking questions 4. Watching what happens 5. Learning the basic rules and procedures 3. Building rapport Establishing rapport with gatekeepers is crucial for successful research allowing researchers to gain access to valuable insights and information Documenting ethnography and participant observation 1. Fieldnotes - fieldnotes are crucial in capturing and reflecting on observations, allowing the researcher to make meaning from their experiences 2. Data analysis - ethnographic research produces data through interviews, fieldnotes and documents; the researcher analyses and codes the data to extract key concepts and categories Access providers Gatekeepers: someone who gives you access to the group Sponsors: willing to use a bit of their social or political capital to support your research Tips for positive responses Know the organisation Show competence Build trust Tell your research story Ethics in Ethnographic Research Building trust - relies on building trust with participants through a relationship process Informed consent Researchers' positionality - must be aware of their positionality and navigate the complexities of building relationships while also conducting objective research Representation of voices - must inclusively and realistically represent the voices of all participants Saturation: research comes to a close when the observer no longer learns anything new from continued observation, reaching a point of saturation Exploratory research - is open-ended and aims to investigate phenomena in depth without a predefined hypothesis Inductive - builds theories or explanations from the ground up, starting with data collection and moving towards general conclusions or theories 5 Week 3: Qualitative Interviews & Sampling When and why should you use qualitative interviews to collect your data? Aim to produce a list of people's attitudes, beliefs, preferences or even simple knowledge then surveys may be better Aim to understand how people's understanding of a topic is formulated, offered and discussed with other than focus groups may be better Aim to understand not only what but how people make sense of a topic, then interviews are better As a form of data collection that focuses on the details of the meaning.making processes among specific groups of people Interview Types Factual interviews: to collect people's account of what is going on in a field or during an event Conceptual interviews: seek to clarify how people understand an abstract concept such as “democracy” Narrative interviews: focus on how participants talk about their daily lives or specific events Discursive interviews: interested in how participants select specific symbols and arguments to explain their position Sampling & Access Develop a list of criteria that potential respondents need to match to be relevant to your study Whether your sample should be homogeneous (participants in the sample are similar in certain characteristics) or heterogeneous (includes a mix of diverse elements or participants with different characteristics) in some aspects Sample criteria help further narrow down the study population to a specific group of people Qualitative research is iterative (the process is repeated and refined continuously throughout the research) Sample size > 10 to 30 people Sampling Techniques Purposive sampling: a non-random technique where researchers select participants based on specific characteristics relevant to the study Extreme samples: include cases that are the extremes of the topic under investigation Typical samples: include cases about the topic under investigation Maximal variation samples: focus on achieving as much variety among participants as possible Critical samples: include individuals whose experiences provide the most expertise Sensitive samples: focus on selecting individuals in precarious positions, although the ethics of that need to be carefully considered Convenience samples: include the individuals who are most accessible to the researchers Snowball samples: the initial participants recommend other potential participants that meet the sampling criteria The process of data collection Researchers own epistemological position - departure point on what constitutes data and how it can be gathered Co-production of meaning - instead of trying to remove themselves from the interaction, qualitative researchers acknowledge that their presence is the reason why people talk Qualitative interviews are often rooted in a constructivist paradigm Interviews require researchers to become self-reflexive Three Types of Interviews Structured interviews: characterised by having a set-in-stone list of questions that are asked in the same order to all participants Semi-structured interviews: with a set of topics (often called an interview guide); for each topic, a few sample questions are developed Unstructured interviews: pursuing one major topic, but each interview is different from the others; there is no given set of issues or question Interview guide & questions Interview guide: a list of the most relevant topics that need to be touched upon in the interview to answer the research question 6  The questionnaire: a list of questions, usually grouped around the topic, that the researcher can use during the interview Follow-up questions: a list of questions or statements that will be asked to further probe into the answers provided by participants Material probes (news story, an advertisement, an object) can also be elicited or brought to the interview to facilitate the discussion Two aspects related to the interview guide need to be kept in mind: 1. The sequence of topics and questions 1. Interviews usually start with a warming-up section 2. Place sensitive or abstract issues towards the end of the interview 2. The construction of good questions, including follow-up opportunitites 1. Phatic responses: verbal and nonverbal cues that tell the participant you are listening) Formulating Research Question Use open-ended questions Avoid the use of academic concepts or jargon in your questions Avoid double-barrel questions Use questions focusing on the participant's experience or views on a concrete case or example The logistics of doing the interview Transcript: word-by-word records of the interview, including pauses, sighs, laughter, hesitations and interruptions Lecture Introduction to interviews as research methods One of the most common methods of data collection (research, BA thesis, professional world) Understanding how people make sense of the world Conversation Capturing interactions in a natural setting Guided interactions: by the researcher, RQ, questions, intervention in the conversation Resource vs. Topic Resource: “Reflection of interviews reality outside the interview” Topic: joint construction of World Out Three (interviewee & interviewer) Objectivity Bias: when people focus too much on being neutral and ignore personal perspectives, which can hide important details and deeper insights Subjectivity: refers to the influence of a researcher's personal perspectives, experiences, and interpretations on the study, which helps uncover deeper meanings and context Intersubjectivity: refers to the shared understanding and meaning created between researchers and participants through their interactions and dialogue Research Questions for Interviewees What type of research questions are best answered by using interviews? Knowledge about a topic, event > factual aspects, truth Example: how did citizen activists use the affordances of social media during the BLM movement? (Factual) Thinking/talking pattern about a topic, event > relation, individual/social structure Example: How did BLM citizen activists understand the role of protest in addressing systematic racism? (Meaning-making 7 Steps for iterative sample process Select > site, persons of interest, body of text Identify > situations, topics, what will be coded Look for > other relevant factors, other relevant topics, other relevant ideas Observation, Interviews and focus groups, content analysis Doing interviews: key aspects What does depth mean in the context of an interview? Extensive explanations of ideas Establishing a good relationship with your participant Put the interviewee at ease Clarity of purpose Self-disclosure for both in the interview To encourage depth signal that you listen, but with minimal interruptions The art of listening Response: understanding, probing, evaluative and phatic Interview Questions RQ: concept / Literature review: topics / interview guide: topics and questions How do you come up with questions for interviews? Interview schedule - more formal Structured interview Same question in the same order for all Good when you have multiple interviewees Interview guide - less formal Semi-structured interviews Groupings of topical questions Order may vary Rookie mistakes Questions are driven by a concern with truth/bais Questions are closed Questions are answerable with superficial & short answers OR unanswerable (too general/abstract) The interviewer Creative & flexible Use non-threatening language Are aware of body language Are aware of the tension goals for research vs interest in sensitivity to the conversation Are mindful of ethical considerations imbalances in power Ongoing informed consent 8 “Interviewing is a craft. It rests on the judgement of a qualified researcher the interviewer is the instrument. The outcome of an interview depends on the knowledge, sensitivity and empathy of the interviewer.” - Kvale, 1996 Week 4: Focus Groups Lecture Focus Groups Purpose 1. Socialness is obvious and purposeful Collaborative data co-production 2. Deceptively simple methodology Mostly still seems like a quick data-gathering method Ignores the complexities of a focus group Sociologist Georg Simmel Move from Dyad to Triad Change from 1 to 1 conversation to 1 to 1+ radically alters social context When and why using focus groups? Researchers can collect multiple individual reactions simultaneously Rapid, individual-level feedback A large amount of interaction Specific topic Limites time Inexpensive and efficient way to “rapidly appraise” what people think about a topic Group effect: participants draw upon shared experiences Potential for Complimentary interactions Argumentative interactions Focus group units of analysis 1. The individual member Statements made by individual members 2. The group Determine group consensual/level of agreement Participants work together to tackle complicated ideas and concepts 3. The interaction Often overlooked or assumed Moderator guide Introduction and introductory activities Basic rules and guidelines Short question-and-answer discussions Special activities or exercises Guidance for dealing with sensitive issues It should be designed to encourage discussion Open-ended Probes 9 Group Dynamics Categories that influence comfort and openness Intrapersonal and individual differences Two types of influence 1. Personal characteristics Demographics (age, gender, socioeconomic status) Physical characteristics (appearance and clothing style) Personality characteristics 2. Combinations of personal characteristics Interpersonal factors Cohesiveness, compatibility, social power, non-verbal communication Environmental factors Material environment, territoriality, spatial arrangements, interpersonal distance, strangers versus acquaintances Conflict Finding a potential “focal conflict” Two main kinds of solutions 2. Enabling solutions> produces creativity or an acceptance of differences within a group 3. Restrictive solution> inhibits interaction Manage challenging/difficult participants Writing exercises - shift from talking Non-verbal cues Addressing participants directly Dealing with conflict requires a good moderator A good moderator Good knowledge of the questions of interest Be able to keep track of who is participating Needs to engage and encourage the focus group members to participate Needs to listen to the participants and adjust accordingly Remain natural or as neutral as possible Be aware of body language Clarify the comments of others when needed Able to observe group dynamics Readings Focus group: a directed conversation on a specific topic, issue or concern with a small number of participants Intended to be centred on one topic or an interrelated set of topics Six to twelve participants Lasts between 30 minutes to two hours Stimulus material: a video or a picture to prompt ongoing conversations related to the researcher's overall research question The use of focus groups Can be designed to include the voices of persons with limited power They reduce the distance between professional researchers and the target audience Can be used as a tool for validating research findings - checking to see if earlier research is shown to be true Can be used as a preliminary step to focus further research Advantages Socially oriented research methods that capture real-life data in a social environment Flexible research methods that can be used in conjunction with several other research methods 10  Allow the researcher to get data quickly from a group of respondents with less cost, both in terms of time and money Bring out aspects of the topic that “would not have been anticipated by the researchers” Disadvantages Researcher has less control Data from focus groups can be difficult to analyze Often difficult to arrange - both in terms of timing for participants and location Focus groups sample and set up Heterogenous groups - usually better for exploring issues of a public nature as they may be more inclined to pay attention to the moderator than each other Homogeneous groups - members tend to be more willing to speak openly and express themselves in ways that relate well with other members The process of data collection 1. Aids in developing rapport between the moderator and the focus group participants making the conversation more comfortable 2. Introducing the topic and beginning with some open questions to the participants 3. Which overlaps with the second is the asking of probing questions 4. Conclude the focus group by doing three interrelated things Asking a final or summary question that draws on the discussion of the focus group Asking if there are any final comments or questions from the participants Acknowledge their contribution Control and focus factors affecting focus group success Intrapersonal factors: what the participants “bring” to the focus group in terms of who they are and their own experiences and perspectives (demographics, physical characteristics, personal characteristics) Interpersonal factors: include the cohesiveness of the group, the level of compatibility and the social dynamics Cohesiveness of the focus group: about the bond that the members feel with each other and the moderator and how they begin to coordinate towards the goal of the researchers in exploring a particular topic Compatibility of the focus group: more about the extent to which the members of the group have similar characteristics Social power: related to how much knowledge, information or experience particular participants are meant to have about others Environmental factors Material environment: including the size of the room and distractions that might be within the room or visible just outside Setup of the room: how chairs are arranged in relation to the moderator and in relation to any visual props that might be used Expectations of interpersonal distance: arrangement of seating needs to be in line with how close participants might expect to be sitting to each other Three specific techniques have been described as helpful for addressing participants that create issues within the focus group 1. Rely on non-verbal cues to make the point that the participant is being disruptive 2. Particularly if the challenging participant is dominating the conversation, shifting the entire group towards writing exercises to answer questions has been shown as effective 3. Addressing the participant directly and indicating that you want to give everyone a chance to speak or that all responses are valid 11