MMR Textbook PDF

# SYLLABUS ## Mass Media Research **Objectives:** * To introduce students to the debates in research approaches and equip them with tools to carry on research. * To understand the scope and techniques of media research, their utility and limitations. | Sr. No. | Particulars | |:---:|:---| | 1 |...

# SYLLABUS ## Mass Media Research **Objectives:** * To introduce students to the debates in research approaches and equip them with tools to carry on research. * To understand the scope and techniques of media research, their utility and limitations. | Sr. No. | Particulars | |:---:|:---| | 1 | Relevance, Scope of Mass Media Research and Role of Research in the Media | | 2 | Steps Involved in the Research Process | | 3 | Qualitative and Quantitative Research | | 4 | Discovery of Research Problem, Identifying Dependent and Independent Variables, Developing Hypothesis | | 5 | Concept, Types and Uses of Research Designs | | | (a) Exploratory | | | (b) Descriptive and | | | (c) Causal | | 6 | Data Collection Methodology | | | (a) Primary Data Collection Methods | | | | (i) Depth Interviews | | | | (ii) Focus Group | | | | (iii) Surveys | | | | (iv) Observations | | | | (v) Experimentations | | | (b) Secondary Data Collection Methods | | | (c) Literature Review | | 7 | Designing Questionnaire and Measurement Techniques | | | (a) Types and Basics of Questionnaire | | | (b) Projective Techniques | | | (c) Attitude Measurement Scales | | 8 | Sampling Process | | 9 | Data Tabulation and Research Report Format | | 10 | Application of Research in Mass Media | | 11 | Introduction to Semiology | | | (a) The Semiotic Approach to the Construction of Meaning | | | (b) Barthes Primary Level and Secondary Level Signification | | | (c) Semiotic Analysis | | 12 | Content Analysis | | | (a) Definition and Uses | | | (b) Quantitative and Qualitative Approach | | | (c) Steps in Content Analysis | | | (d) Devising Means of a Quantification System | | | (e) Limitations of Content Analysis | # CONTENTS | Sr. No. | Particulars | Page No. | |:---:|:---|:---:| | 1 | Relevance, Scope of Mass Media Research and Role of Research in the Media | 1-5 | | 2 | Steps Involved in the Research Process | 6-11 | | 3 | Qualitative and Quantitative Research | 12-16 | | 4 | Discovery of Research Problem, Identifying Dependent and Independent Variables, Developing Hypothesis | 17-23 | | 5 | Concept, Types and Uses of Research Designs | 24-28 | | 6 | Data Collection Methodology | 29-41 | | 7 | Designing Questionnaire and Measurement Techniques | 42-52 | | 8 | Sampling Process | 53-61 | | 9 | Data Tabulation and Research Report Format | 62-67 | | 10 | Application of Research in Mass Media | 68-82 | | 11 | Introduction to Semiology | 83-87 | | 12 | Content Analysis | 88-94 | |   | Bibliography | 95 | # Chapter: 1 ## Relevance, Scope of Mass Media Research and Role of Research in the Media ### 1.1 Relevance and Scope of Mass Media Research Research means an attempt to discover something. It can be done formally or informally. In mass media, research is used for different reasons. It can be used to make decisions by the media decision makers or to evaluate problems relating to media. It is used to describe media, analyse the effects of media on the audiences, understanding the behaviour of the audiences and so on. Mass media research is significant as media has reached every corner of the world. In its various form be it print, television, films or the Internet, it has a huge impact on our lives. We cannot imagine a life without some or the other form of media. There are various questions related to media and its effects. Research is required to describe the media, to analyse the effects of media on consumers, to obtain an understanding of audience behaviour and other such reasons. Media decision makers require objective information to evaluate problem, especially when huge sums of money are involved. Theoretically also, there is wide interest in gaining a deeper knowledge about media. Every day, we find references in media to audience surveys, public opinion polls, advertising and public relation campaigns. Media research is relevant in all forms of media. Be it print media involving readership studies, editor-reader comparisons or even lifestyle segmentation studies. In regard to Internet, there are studies on online usage, effects both positive and negative etc., Every time we have questions like, 'what, where, when and why' related to the media, there is need and scope for investigation. There are some major reasons that have encouraged mass media research. The first reason was that after the First World War there was a need to understand the nature of propaganda. At that point of time, the media was believed to be very powerful and having great effects on the people. Research was done to study the effects of media on the people. Another reason for the development of mass media research was that the advertisers had realised the importance of research data which could be used to develop ways to persuade customers to buy products or services. As a result of this, research was done to evaluate effectiveness of media messages. Information was also accumulated about the audiences. The third factor was the interest of citizens to understand the effects of media on the general public and more specially on children. This resulted in research done on violence and sexual content in media. The last contributing factor was the increasing competition among the media for advertising. Prior to the early 1960s, most of the research in mass media was done in the psychology and sociology departments. During the later 1960s, media departments in colleges and universities were established. ### 1.2 Role of Research in Media Mass media research makes use of the scientific method for its study. The purpose of making use of the scientific method is to have an objective and unbiased evaluation of data. In mass media research, both qualitative and quantitative data reliability and validity concerns should be kept in mind. Reliability is related to replicability. When two or more researchers are studying the same issue or topic by using the same methods, they should come up with the same or nearly the same results. This is the reliability of the study. Validity is related to the nature of the findings of the study, the degree to which they are a true reflection of what has been formally stated and also in declaration of the aims and objectives of the study. Both reliability and validity are important methodological considerations. Media should not be seen in isolation. It should be seen as being one set of social institutions, which interacts with other institutions within the wider social system. Academic research in media is done by the scholars from colleges and universities. Here, research is theoretical or scholarly by nature as its results are directed to help explain mass media and its effects on people. Topics of study involve issues like effects of media on consumers, effect of different types of programmes on children, the use of media, etc. Commercial research in relation to mass media is done by private companies or research consultants. This type of research is generally applied research because the results are aimed at facilitating decision making. Topics of study focus on the content of media and preferences of the consumers, advertising and promotional campaigns, sales forecasting and image studies of the properties owned by the company and so on. Cultural research in media is concerned with studies that offer a broad range of ideas about how the media affects culture. It also provides many different views concerning long-term consequences of the cultural changes affected by the media. Cultural studies research, political economy theories and hegemony culture theories are types of theories in cultural research. There are many other differences between these types of research in the media. Academic or administrative researches are public and made available to the public. On the other hand, the commercial researches are considered to be the property of the agency which has conducted the study and other researchers or people cannot obtain it. Sometimes, certain commercial or private researches are made known to the public like some of the public opinion polls. Academic researchers do not generally have a deadline to keep but private or commercial researches have to be conducted in a specific time frame. These commercial researches are comparatively more expensive to conduct. Cultural research focuses on topics like focusing on use of media to create forms of culture which can structure everyday life (cultural studies research). It could also focus on how social elites make use of economic power to exploit media institutions (political economy theories) or it could study the culture that is imposed from above or outside and that serves the interests of those people who have dominant social positions (hegemonic culture research). Research in all these different sectors differ in terms of their scope and cost, but they make use of similar methods of conducting their studies and have common goals like understanding problems and making some types of predictions. Researches in mass media are done in relation to the media institutions, media messages and media audiences. Media institutions are conceptualised in two ways. Firstly, they can be regarded as industries or businesses which produce media commodities in a capitalist society. They depend on the economic environment in which they operate. Secondly, in a broader context, media institutions can be seen as large organising bodies or structure of a society. They form the fabric of the wider culture. Media products of media industries are seen as commodities. Media institutions are a source of research. Some researches have been done on media institutions which include studies of the Frankfurt School and its critique of the culture industries, political economy of the media, the culture industries, etc. Research is also done in relation to the messages that are passed on to the audiences by the media. It could focus on the structure of the message, its presentation and its impact on the audiences. In relation to the media audiences also, researches have been conducted. Here, the focus is on conceptualising and measuring the media audiences. It can be done in relation to the different media types and their audiences. Studies are also carried out on the effects of the media on audience groups like the limited effects theories, uses and gratifications model. Studies are also done on media consumption, the power relations of media reception and technology, cultural studies and media consumption etc., It can include research on the minority audiences, and the media audiences and media and individuals, post-modernism, cyberspace and the media consumer, media consumption and social status, public participation, benefits for media producers, audience discussion programmes, active audience theory etc., Media researches have opened up to newer areas of study. More and more people have become interested in researches related to the types of mass media, their effects, its messages and content and its impact on the audiences. ## Questions 1. Discuss the relevance and scope of Mass media research. 2. Explain the role of research in media. # Chapter: 2 ## Steps Involved in the Research Process ### 2.1 Introduction Research process is made up of various steps which need to be followed in order to conduct research. These steps or series of actions follow a sequence, but not absolute. Steps often overlap. At every step, the researcher has to choose from a variety of methods and procedures in order to achieve the objective. ### 2.2 Steps in the Research Process Following are the various steps involved in the research process: 1. Formulation of research problem 2. Surveying extensive literature 3. Development of hypothesis 4. Preparation of research design 5. Determining the sample design 6. Collection of data 7. Execution of the project 8. Data analysis 9. Testing of hypothesis interpretations and generalizations 10. Preparing research report or presentation of results 11. Formal write-up of conclusions reached These are the various steps which need to be followed for conducting the research process. Each of them has its own value in the research process. The various steps involved have been discussed in detail below. 1. **Formulation of research problem:** Research problems are of two types: (a) relating to states of nature and (b) relating to relationships between variables. At the start, the researcher must decide his area of interest or his subject of study. There are two parts in the formulation of the research. The first is a thorough understanding of the research problem. The researcher needs to examine the literature available in order to familiarise himself with the problem being studied. He also has to rephrase or put the problem in specific terms. In the entire process of research, this step is of great importance. This is because it will help distinguish between relevant and irrelevant data. 2. **Surveying extensive literature:** The next step in the research process is of surveying the extensive literature which is connected to the problem being investigated. It will include journals, books, government records, etc. One source can lead to other sources of information. Earlier, studies similar to the researcher's own study should be carefully examined. 3. **Development of hypothesis:** Once the extensive literature has been examined, the researcher has to state in very clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. A working hypothesis is a tentative assumption which is made to draw out and test the logical consequences. The way in which the research hypothesis is developed provides the focal point of research. It also has an impact on the way in which tests are to be conducted for analysing data. It indirectly has an impact on the quality of data required for an analysis. The hypothesis needs to be specific and limited to the research being undertaken as it has to be tested. It is the hypothesis which guided the researcher by limiting his area of study and keeping him on the right track. It also points out the type of data required and methods of analysis of data which should be used. A working hypothesis can be developed by using the following approach: discussions with experts and colleagues about the problem, its origin and objectives, examining available records and data, and a review of similar studies. Personal exploratory research involves limited field interviews to gain further insight. A working hypothesis, therefore, needs to be stated in precise and clear terms. 4. **Preparation of research design:** In this step of the research process, the researcher will have to state the conceptual framework within which the research will be carried out. This helps the research to be efficient and give maximum information. So, research design provides for the collection of relevant evidence along with using minimum time, effort and money. All this depends on the purpose of the research. Research purposes are divided into four groups: exploration, description, diagnosis and experimentation. A suitable research design is one which minimises bias and provides maximum reliability of data. There are various research designs available from which the researcher has to select. Preparation of research design takes into account aspects like the means by which information will be obtained, availability and skills of the researcher, time available for conducting research as well as the finances available for research. 5. **Determining the sample design:** All the items that come under the researcher's field of study are termed as the 'population' or 'universe'. A study done on all the items of the 'population' or 'universe' is known as a census study. Such studies or researches have high accuracy. But, such studies can have the element of bias. Moreover, they involve a lot of time, money and effort. Apart from this, certain areas of study or research do not lend themselves to a census study. So, very often from the 'population' under study, a few items are selected. This is known as a sample. On this sample, the research is conducted. Sampling is of two types, probability and non-probability. In probability sampling, every item or element or individual who is part of the 'population' under study, has an equal chance of being selected. Whereas in non-probability sampling, every element, item or individual does not have an equal chance of being selected as part of the sample. Probability sampling is further divided into various types like simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, multi-stage or cluster sampling. Non-probability sampling is divided into convenient or accidental sampling, purposive or judgement sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling. The researcher selects the sampling design based on factors like his nature of study, time and finances available and other related aspects. 6. **Collection of data:** The next step in the research process is of collecting appropriate data. It involves various methods which differ in terms of time, cost, efforts and resources required. Some of the techniques of data collection are through observation, interviews, questionnaires or schedules etc., The researcher is required to select one of the methods of data collection keeping in mind factors like the nature and purpose of study, resources available, time, money and efforts available. 7. **Execution of the project:** This is a very important step. If done correctly, the information collected will be accurate and reliable. It is the responsibility of the researcher to carry out the research in a systematic way and in time. He also needs to keep a check on the staff if being used, are doing the assigned work properly. Also care needs to be taken to avoid personal prejudices and biases from entering into the study and keep it realistic. 8. **Data analysis:** The next step after data collection is of analysing the data collected. This requires closely related procedures like establishing categories, applying the categories to raw data, tabulation and drawing conclusions. The researcher has to discard the irrelevant data, if any. 9. **Testing of hypothesis:** After the data has been analysed, the researcher can test the hypothesis formulated earlier. He can check and find out if the facts support the hypotheses or are contrary to it. Various tests have been developed by statisticians for this purpose like Chi-square test, t-test and f-test. Testing of the hypothesis will lead to either acceptance of the hypotheses or rejecting it. 10. **Generalizations and conclusions:** If the hypotheses is tested and upheld several times, then a researcher can arrive at conclusions and build a theory. The researcher at this stage makes interpretations and generalizations on the basis of the data analysed. These interpretations may lead to further questions which may take the form of further researches. 11. **Preparation of research report:** This is the step where the researcher prepares a report on what has been done by him. It has to be done with great care. The report will contain preliminary pages as well as the main text. The preliminary pages will include the title, date, acknowledgements, foreword and table of contents. The main text will have the introduction, summary of findings, main report and conclusions. At the end of the report, the researcher will list down the appendices. Bibliography will follow next towards the end. In case of published research reports, index should also be given. The report should be concise and objective. If presenting the data more clearly, then charts and illustrations should be used. A good research has many criteria. They include clear statement of purpose, a proper research design, valid and reliable data, systematic data analysis and justifiable conclusions. So, we can say that a good research is systematic and logical. ## Questions 1. Discuss how a research problem is formulated, literature is surveyed and a hypothesis is developed. 2. Explain how research and sample designs are prepared. 3. Focus on steps of data collection, project execution and data analysis. 4. Describe the research steps of hypothesis testing, making generalizations and conclusions and preparation of the research report. # Chapter: 3 ## Qualitative and Quantitative Research ### 3.1 Introduction One of the important aspects of conducting research is to decide between using two different methodologies available, namely qualitative research and quantitative research. Both of them have their own advantages and are suitable for different types of studies. Quantitative methodology gives measurement a lot of importance. It makes use of empirical methods. Moreover it is accurate and precise. In case of Qualitative methodology, reality is seen as being subjective. Human beings have a central position this research tries to interpret social life and meanings. ### 3.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Qualitative research involves several methods of data collection such as focus groups, field observation, in-depth interviews, and case studies. Qualitative data is based on qualitative phenomenon i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, a researcher is interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things). This type of data discovers the underlying motives and desires. Qualitative data collection research has certain advantages. First of all it allows a researcher to view human behavior in its natural setting, moreover the techniques used are flexible and allows the researcher to pursue new areas of interest. A problem could arise with reliability of the data and small size of sample. Quantitative data is based on measurement of some amount or quantity. It is applicable when the phenomena can be expressed in terms of quantity. Quantitative data is collected though methods like telephone surveys, mail surveys and Internet surveys. A large sample size can be used in case of quantitative research. Media research can be qualitative or quantitative. In qualitative research, methods like case studies, observation, in-depth interviews are made use of. Quantitative research makes use of research methods like Internet, mail and telephone surveys. Both these methods are discussed in detail below. ### 3.3 Qualitative Research Qualitative research, a method of research designed to reveal a target audience's range of behavior and perceptions in relation to specific topics. Results of this research are descriptive in nature rather than predictive. It is primarily exploratory research and used to gain an understanding of the reasons, opinions and motivations underlying human behavior. Qualitative research provides insights into problems as well as helps developing hypotheses for potential research. It makes use of variables which may or may not be measured. The methods used in qualitative research like focus groups, field observation, case studies and in-depth interviews make use of the questioning approach. But, the questioning approach is varied. The researcher at the start has a set of specific questions. As the research progresses, he develops follow-up questions, where needed. This type of research has its own merits and demerits. The advantages of qualitative research are various. For instance, behavior can be viewed in its natural setting. Moreover, the researchers understanding of the phenomenon being studied is increased. This is more in those cases where a new phenomenon is being investigated. Lastly, qualitative research, allows the researcher to study new areas of investigation as it is flexible by nature. This method of study has certain demerits as well. Firstly, sometimes the sample size available is too small making generalizations restricted. Due to this, qualitative research is generally a preliminary step to further study, rather than being a final step of a research project. Another disadvantage is related to data reliability as a result of single observer describing unique events. Besides this, one other disadvantage is of loss of objectivity occurring through close involvement with respondents. Lastly, this research may not produce valuable data if not planned in a proper manner. Although qualitative research appears an easy method, the projects need to be designed carefully in order to focus on the important basic issues. Some of the techniques used in qualitative research are: 1. **Case Study:** It involves an in-depth and detailed study of a particular phenomenon or subject like an individual, organisation or event. It investigates the topic under study within its real-life context. 2. **Focus Groups:** This involves a group of people who are asked about their beliefs, opinions, perceptions and attitudes relating to a phenomenon, idea, product or service. In this, questions are asked in an interactive group setting, where the participants are free to talk to the other group members. 3. **Field Observation:** Here, the ongoing behavior of the subjects is observed in its natural setting. It gives a better understanding of the phenomenon or topic being studied. 4. **In-depth Interview:** This is related to a confidential conversation between an interviewer and respondent. Such interviews focus on a particular topic in detail in order to gain better understanding. ### 3.4 Quantitative Research Quantitative research is used to quantify attitudes, opinions and behavior in order to generalize results from a large sample population. It is also made use of to quantify the problem being studied by generating numerical data or data which can be converted into useable statistics. It studies variables which can be measured. It makes use of techniques like internet, mail and telephone surveys. Here, a fixed set of questions is used through the study. Compared to qualitative data, quantitative data is more structured. This research is related to how often a variable is present in a study and makes use of numbers to communicate the amount. Quantitative research has its own merits and demerits. Its first advantage is that due to use of numbers, there is greater precision in the study. For example, we can know the exact increase or decrease in the vaccination of small children and infants for various diseases taking place. Secondly, this research can make use of larger sample sizes which lead to wider generalizations being made. One disadvantage of this research method is that not all topics and areas of study can be conducted through quantitative research. Some of the techniques used to conduct quantitative research are: 1. **Telephone Surveys:** This is conducted over the telephone. The researcher asks a fixed set of questions to respondents over the phone and records the answers. 2. **Mail Surveys:** This method of survey is conducted by posting the questionnaire to the respondent, who will fill in the answers and post it back to the researcher. 3. **Internet Surveys:** Such surveys are conducted by making use of the internet. The respondent answers the questionnaire through the internet directly. **Distinction between qualitative and quantitative research:** 1. In quantitative research, reality is out there to be found. Whereas in qualitative research, reality is in the minds of people. 2. Human beings are seen as being rational in quantitative research but in qualitative research they are viewed as being creators of their own world and have their own meanings and rationality. 3. Quantitative research makes use of quantitative methods of study. Qualitative research makes use of qualitative methods aiming to interpret social life and understanding meaning. ## Questions 1. Write a note on qualitative research. 2. Describe quantitative research. # Chapter: 4 ## Discovery of Research Problem, Identifying Dependent and Independent Variables, Developing Hypothesis ### Introduction Research process is an organised and systematic enquiry and study. It is an intellectual process involving intellectual curiosity, imagination, vision and knowledge of methodology of research. The following steps are followed for conducting research. ### 4.1 Discovery of the Research Problem The term 'problem' refers to a question or issue which needs to be examined. Selection of the research problem is the first and basic step. The research problem must be carefully selected. Help can be taken from a research guide. The researcher can select the problem for study from various sources like exposure to field situations, reading, academic experience, consultations, brain storming etc. There are different steps in order to identify the research problem. They are: * (a) Selection of the Discipline: The discipline or subject in which the research has to be done should be selected. For example, Economics, Management, Psychology, etc. * (b) **Demarcating the Broad Area or a Particular Aspect of the Selected Subject:** Here the researcher will select a particular aspect of the selected subject. For example, in the discipline of Management, the researcher can select Marketing Management. * (c) **Identifying Two or More Specific Topics in the Selected Broad Area:** This is the final step in identification of the problem. He has to select some specific topics on which to focus and which are appropriate to his study. The researcher can select an appropriate research problem on the basis of some criteria. There can be internal criteria like his interest, competence, the available resources like time and finance. External criteria should also be kept in mind like researchability of the problem, its importance and urgency, novelty of the problem, feasibility, facilities, usefulness and social relevance. The identified problem has to be evaluated against internal and external criteria and then the researcher has to select the most appropriate research problem. It is necessary to select a problem which is feasible and researchable, as well as interesting and according to the competence of the researcher. Once the research problem has been selected, it needs to be defined and formulated. Formulation means "translating and transforming the selected problem into a scientifically researchable questions." Merton has identified three main aspects in formulation of the research problem. These are: * (a) The Originating Question: This refers to what one wants to know exactly. It may be for discovering new facts or finding out the validity of certain empirical studies. * (b) **Rationale of the Question:** This refers to the reasons why a particular question is posed. * (c) **Specifying the Question:** The main original question is broken up into several specific questions. This is done in order to identify the various areas on which data is required. The actual process of formulation of the research problem involves the following steps: * (a) **Developing the Title:** The title should reflect the real intention of the researcher and on which aspect the focus of the study will be. * (b) **Building a Conceptual Model:** On the basis of theoretical knowledge of the problem, some specific concepts are used. The interrelations between the different concepts need to be identified and structured into a framework. ### 4.2 Identifying Dependent and Independent Variables The empirical counterpart of a construct or concept is called a variable. They are of importance as they link the empirical with the theoretical. Variables are those phenomena or events which are measured or manipulated in research. Researchers attempt to test many associated variables in order to develop an underlying meaning or relationship among them. After analysis, only the important variables are kept and the rest are discarded. Important variables are termed as marker variables. Variables are divided on the basis of their relationship with one another. Independent variables are those which cause or are responsible for bringing about changes in phenomena or situations. They are systematically varied by the researcher. Dependent variables are the outcomes of changes brought about by introduction of independent variables. These are observed and their values depend on the influence of independent variables. So, dependent variables are what the researcher wants to explain. For example, Smoking and cancer. Smoking is an independent variable. It can cause cancer. Cancer is the dependent variable. Differences between the types of variables is based on the purpose of the study. What is an independent variable in one study may be a dependent variable in another study. Additionally, in a research study, relationship of more than one independent variable to one dependent variable maybe examined. In many cases, many dependent variables are measured in the same research. This is termed as multivariate analysis. ### 4.3 Developing Hypothesis After a general research area has been identified, the researcher needs to state the problem in the form of a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a formal statement concerned with the relationship between variables. It is directly tested. **Definition:** Goode and Hatt have defined hypothesis as, “a proposition which can be put to test to determine its validity." Lundberg has defined hypothesis as, "a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested." **Types:** There are different types of hypothesis. Hypothesis have been classified in many ways. Based on their function, hypothesis are of Two types: (i) Descriptive hypothesis and (ii) Relational hypothesis. * (i) **Descriptive Hypothesis:** These are propositions which describe characteristics. For example, size, form, etc. * (ii) **Relational Hypothesis:** These are propositions describing the relationship between Two variables. Another approach to classify hypothesis is: (i) Working Hypothesis, (ii) Null Hypothesis and (iii) Statistical Hypothesis. * (i) **Working Hypothesis:** These are made while planning the study of a problem. They may not be very specific and are subject to modification as the research progresses. * (ii) **Null Hypothesis:** These are statements denying what are explicitly indicated in working hypothesis. They state that no difference exists between the parameter and the statistic it is being compared to. * (iii) **Statistical Hypothesis:** These are statements about a statistical population. They are derived from a sample and are quantitative in nature and can be numerically measured. On the basis of abstraction, there are Three types of hypothesis: * (i) Common Sense Hypothesis, (ii) Complex Hypothesis and (iii) Analytical Hypothesis. * (i) **Common Sense Hypotheses:** Such hypotheses represent common sense ideas. They point to the existence of empirical uniformities understood from everyday observations. * (ii) **Complex Hypotheses:** These type of hypothesis aim at testing the existence of logically derived relationships between empirical uniformities. * (iii) **Analytical Hypotheses:** Such hypotheses are concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. They occur at the highest level of abstraction. Analytical hypothesis specify relationship between changes in one property and changes in another. For conducting a successful research, it is essential to carefully construct the hypothesis. It is hypothesis which brings clarity to the research and makes it specific. Hypothesis arise from a set of 'hunches', which are tested. Hypothesis is important as it brings about direction to the study. Hypothesis are speculative statements subject to verification by a research study, for formulating hypothesis it is essential to make sure that it is simple, specific and conceptually clear. It also needs to be rooted in an existing body of knowledge and be operationalised. A good hypothesis needs to have the following features: * (a) The hypothesis should be conceptually clear. It should have clearly defined and understandable concepts. * (b) It should be specific. * (c) A hypothesis should be testable. * (d) It should be related to available techniques to make it researchable. * (e) The hypothesis should be related to a body of theory. * (f) It should be logically consistent. * (g) It should be objective in nature and free from value-judgements. * (h) A hypothesis should be simple. **Conditions of Hypothesis:** An acceptable hypotheses should fulfil Two conditions: * (a) it must explain what it claims to explain. * (b) it must be capable of being verified or tested A good hypothesis is developed in many ways. These include discussions with experts or colleagues regarding the problem, its origin, as well the objectives in seeking a solution. Data and records can be examined to make note of trends, beculiarities and other clues. Similar studies which have been conducted can be reviewed. The researcher can also conduct personal investigation which can involve personal interviews on a limited scale to obtain a better insight into the problem. So, a good hypothesis is developed as a result of these factors. ## Questions 1. Explain the discovery of research problem in detail. 2. Focus on identification of dependent and independent variables. 3. Elaborate on how hypothesis is developed. # Chapter: 5 ## Concept, Types and Uses of Research Designs ### 5.1 Introduction After the researcher has decided what he wants to study, what follows is how he is going to conduct his study. There are various questions he needs to answer like where will he conduct his study? What is the type of data required? The tasks needed to complete the different components of the research process? What will the sample design? How will the data be analysed? These questions need to be addressed before proceeding with the study. It is the answers to these questions which constitute the core of a research design. A research design is needed as it helps in various research operations and makes research efficient. It is a procedural plan which is adopted by the researcher to answer questions validly, objectively, accurately and economically. ### 5.2 Uses of Research Designs Research designs have the following functions: 1. It helps to conceptualise operational plans for undertaking a variety of procedures and tasks needed for completing the study. 2. Research designs ensure that the procedures undertaken are adequate in order to get valid and accurate answers to research questions. According to Kerlinger, this function is the 'control of variance'. ### 5.3 Concepts Related to Research Designs 1. **Dependent and Independent Variables:** A concept that takes on different quantitative values is termed a variable. For example, height, weight, income etc., qualitative phenomena are also quantified depending on the presence of certain attributes. Those variables depending upon or being the result of other variables is called dependent variable. Those variables responsible for bringing about changes in other factors are called independent variables. 2. **Extraneous Variables:** Those independent variables which are not related to the purpose of a study, but have the capacity to impact the dependent variables are called extraneous variables. 3. **Control:** When the research design is made in such a way that the effects of extraneous independent variables is minimised it is termed 'control'. 4. **Confounded Relationship:** It is a relationship where the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variables. 5. **Research Hypothesis:** A prediction or hypothesised relationship which is to be tested through scientific means is called research hypothesis. 6. **Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis-testing Research:** This is when the aim of research is to test research hypothesis, it is called hypothesis-testing research. That study in which the independent variable is manipulated is experimental hypothesis-testing research. Whereas a study in which the independent variable is not manipulated is termed non-experimental hypothesis-testing research. 7. **Experimental and Control Groups:** During experimental hypothesis-testing research, when the group is exposed to usual conditions, it is called control group. But if the group is exposed to some new or special condition it is called the experimental group. 8. **Treatments:** The variety of conditions in which experimental as well as control groups are termed as 'treatments'. 9. **Experiment:** The process by which the truth of a statistical hypothesis is examined in relation to a research problem is referred to as an experiment. 10. **Experimental Units:** Pre-determined plots or blocks, in which different treatments are made use of are termed as experimental units. ### 5.4 Different Types of Research Designs Research designs are of different types. They are: (a) Exploratory, (b) Descriptive and (c) Casual. Each of these are described in detail as follows: * (a) **Exploratory Research Design** This is also referred to as formulative research study. The main aim of these studies is of formulating a problem for the purpose of greater precision in the study or in order to develop the working hypothesis from operational view point. Major focus of such studies is on finding ideas and insights. The research design needs to be flexible for providing opportunity to consider different aspects of the problem being studied. Three methods are made use of in such research designs: (a) survey of the related or concerned literature, (b) experience survey and (c) analysing insight-stimulating examples. Exploratory research design leads to insights or hypotheses, but it needs to be flexible so that various aspects of a problem can be studied. * (b) **Descriptive Research Design** These are those studies that are related to description of characteristics of particular individual or group. In such research designs, the researcher should be able to