Feldman_10e_Ch02_VideoPPT.pptx

Development Across the Life Span Tenth Edition Chapter 2 The Start of Life: Prenatal Development Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (1 of 4) 2.1 Describe how genes and chromosomes provide our basic genetic endowment. 2.2 Compare monozygotic...

Development Across the Life Span Tenth Edition Chapter 2 The Start of Life: Prenatal Development Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (1 of 4) 2.1 Describe how genes and chromosomes provide our basic genetic endowment. 2.2 Compare monozygotic twins with dizygotic twins. 2.3 Describe how the sex of a child is determined. 2.4 Explain the mechanisms by which genes transmit information. 2.5 Describe the field of behavioral genetics. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (2 of 4) 2.6 Describe the major inherited disorders produced by damaged or mutated genes. 2.7 Describe the role of genetic counselors and differentiate between different forms of prenatal testing. 2.8 Explain how the environment and genetics work together to determine human characteristics. 2.9 Summarize how researchers study the interaction of genetic and environmental factors in development. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (3 of 4) 2.10 Explain how genetics and the environment jointly influence physical traits, intelligence, and personality. 2.11 Explain the role genetics and the environment play in the development of psychological disorders. 2.12 Describe ways in which genes influence the environment. 2.13 Explain the process of fertilization. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (4 of 4) 2.14 Summarize the three stages of prenatal development. 2.15 Describe the challenges that relate to pregnancy. 2.16 Describe the threats to the fetal environment and what can be done about them. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Earliest Development (1 of 2) Genes and Chromosomes: The Code of Life Multiple Births: Two—or More—for the Genetic Price of One Male or Female? Establishing the Sex of the Child The Basics of Genetics: The Mixing and Matching of Traits The Human Genome and Behavioral Genetics: Cracking the Genetic Code Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Earliest Development (2 of 2) Inherited and Genetic Disorders: When Development Deviates from the Norm Genetic Counseling: Predicting the Future from the Genes of the Present Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genes and Chromosomes: The Code of Life (1 of 2) LO 2.1 Describe how genes and chromosomes provide our basic genetic endowment. Humans start as a single cell. – Gametes (sperm and ova) are formed by a process called meiosis. – A zygote is one cell formed by fusion of the two gametes. – All other cells replicate the genetic code by a process called mitosis. – There are trillions of possible genetic combinations. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genes and Chromosomes: The Code of Life (2 of 2) Genetic code is stored and communicated in our genes, the basic units of genetic information. – Humans have roughly 25,000 genes. – Genes are composed of specific sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. – Genes are arranged in specific locations and in a specific order along 46 chromosomes, the rodshaped portions of DNA organized in 23 pairs. ▪One pair of chromosomes is provided by the mother, one by the father. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: An Introduction to Embryonic and Fetal Development Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-1: The Contents of a Single Human Cell At the moment of conception, humans receive about 25,000 genes, contained on 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Chromosomes At the moment of conception, humans receive 23 pairs of chromosomes, half from the mother and half from the father. These chromosomes contain thousands of genes. Source: SPL/ScienceSource Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Multiple Births: Two—or More—for the Genetic Price of One (1 of 2) LO 2.2 Compare monozygotic twins with dizygotic twins. Less than 3 percent of all pregnancies produce twins. Monozygotic twins: genetically identical twins; they form when a cluster of cells in the ovum splits off within the first two weeks after fertilization. Dizygotic twins: no more genetically similar than two siblings; they are produced when separate ova are fertilized by separate sperm at roughly the same time. Other kinds of multiple births (triplets, quadruplets, etc.) can form from either mechanism. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Multiple Births: Two—or More —for the Genetic Price of One (2 of 2) The chances of having multiple births rise when: – Couples use fertility drugs – Women are older There are also racial and national differences in the rate of multiple births. – Black American couples: 1 out of 70 have dizygotic twins. – White American couples: 1 out of 86 have dizygotic twins. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Genetics and Prenatal Development Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-2: Rising Multiples The number and rate of twin births has risen considerably over the past three decades. (Source: Martin & Osterman, 2019 and Martin et al, 2021.) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Male or Female? Establishing the Sex of the Child LO 2.3 Describe how the sex of a child is determined. The 23rd chromosome determines the sex of the child. – Females are XX. – Males are XY. – The father’s sperm determines the sex of the child. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-3: Determining Sex When an ovum and a sperm meet at the moment of fertilization, the ovum is certain to provide an X chromosome, whereas the sperm will provide either an X or a Y chromosome. If the sperm contributes its X chromosome, the child will have an XX pairing on the 23rd chromosome—a female. If the sperm contributes a Y chromosome, the result will be an XY pairing—a male. Does this mean that females are more likely to be conceived than males? Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Basics of Genetics: The Mixing and Matching of Traits (1 of 6) LO 2.4 Explain the mechanisms by which genes transmit information. Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) discovered when two competing traits were present, only one could be expressed. – Dominant trait: the trait that is expressed when two competing traits are present – Recessive trait: a trait that is present in the organism but not expressed Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Basics of Genetics: The Mixing and Matching of Traits (2 of 6) Genetic material relating to both parents in present in the offspring even if it cannot be seen. – Genotype: the underlying combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly visible) in an organism – Phenotype: an observable trait; the trait that is actually seen Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Basics of Genetics: The Mixing and Matching of Traits (3 of 6) Alleles are genes for traits that may take alternate forms. – Homozygous: similar genes inherited from parents for a given trait – Heterozygous: different forms of a gene inherited from parents for a given trait If a child receives a recessive allele from each parent, they will display the recessive characteristic. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Basics of Genetics: The Mixing and Matching of Traits (4 of 6) Example of Transmission of Genetic Information Phenylketonuria (PKU): an inherited disorder in which a child is unable to make use of an essential amino acid present in proteins found in milk and other foods PKU levels build up, causing brain damage and intellectual disabilities. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-4 (a): PKU Probabilities (1 of 3) Phenylketonuria (PKU), a disease that causes brain damage and intellectual disabilities, is produced by a single pair of genes inherited from one’s mother and father. (a) If neither parent carries a gene for the disease, a child cannot develop PKU. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-4 (b): PKU Probabilities (2 of 3) (b) Even if one parent carries the recessive gene but the other doesn’t, the child cannot inherit the disease. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-4 (c): PKU Probabilities (3 of 3) (c) However, if both parents carry the recessive gene, there is a one in four chance that the child will have PKU. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Basics of Genetics: The Mixing and Matching of Traits (5 of 6) Polygenic Traits Most traits are the result of polygenic inheritance, in which a combination of multiple gene pairs is responsible for the production of a particular trait. Genes vary in terms of their reaction range. Some traits (such as blood type AB) are produced by genes in which neither member of a pair of genes can be classified as dominant or recessive; instead, the expressed trait is a combination of the two genes. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Basics of Genetics: The Mixing and Matching of Traits (6 of 6) Polygenic Traits (continued) Some recessive genes are X-linked genes, located only on the X chromosome. – Males have a higher risk for a variety of X-linked disorders, such as red–green color blindness. – Hemophilia is a blood-clotting disorder that is also produced by X-linked genes. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-5: Inheriting Hemophilia Hemophilia, a blood-clotting disorder, has been an inherited disorder throughout the royal families of Europe, as illustrated by the descendants of Queen Victoria of Great Britain. (Source: Kimball, John W., Biology, 5th Ed., © 1983. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Human Genome and Behavioral Genetics: Cracking the Genetic Code LO 2.5 Describe the field of behavioral genetics. In 2001, molecular geneticists mapped the human genome, the specific sequence of genes on each chromosome. – The number of human genes was revised downward from 100,000 to 25,000. – All humans share 99.9 percent of the gene sequence. Behavioral genetics is the study of the effects of heredity on behavior and psychological characteristics. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-6: Uniquely Human? Humans have about 25,000 genes, making them not much more genetically complex than fruit flies and less genetically complex than trees, apples, and wheat. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 2-1: The Genetic Basis of Selected Disorders (1 of 2) Disorder Current Ideas of Genetic Basis Huntington’s disease Early onset (familial) Alzheimer’s disease Mutations in the HTT gene. Three distinct genes identified: APP, PSEN1, or PSEN2, which produce toxic protein fragments called amyloid beta peptide. Mutations in the FMR1 gene. Fragile X syndrome Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Evidence in some studies has linked ADHD with the dopamine D4 and D5 genes, but the complexity of the disease makes it difficult to identify a specific gene beyond reasonable doubt. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 2-1: The Genetic Basis of Selected Disorders (2 of 2) Disorder Alcoholism Schizophrenia Current Ideas of Genetic Basis Research suggests that genes that affect the activity of neurotransmitters serotonin and GABA likely are involved in risk for alcoholism. There are more than 100 genes that have been associated with schizophrenia, but DRD2 appears to be of particular importance. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Inherited and Genetic Disorders: When Development Deviates from the Norm (1 of 3) LO 2.6 Describe the major inherited disorders produced by damaged or mutated genes. Some genetic disorders are inherited (e.g., PKU). Some genetic disorders are the result of genes that are physically damaged. – Spontaneous mutation is when genes spontaneously change their form. – Certain environmental factors can produce malformed genetic material. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-7: Inhaled Air and Genetic Mutations Inhalation of unhealthy, polluted air may lead to mutations in genetic material in sperm. These mutations may be passed on, damaging the fetus and affecting future generations. (Source: Based on Samet et al., 2004, p. 971.) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Inherited and Genetic Disorders: When Development Deviates from the Norm (2 of 3) Down syndrome is produced by the presence of an extra chromosome on the 21st pair. Fragile X syndrome is produced by injury to a gene on the X chromosome. Sickle cell anemia is a blood disorder. Tay-Sachs disease is an untreatable disorder that produces blindness and muscle degeneration prior to death. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Sickle Cell Anemia Sickle cell anemia, named for the presence of misshapen red blood cells, is carried in the genes of 1 in 10 Black people. Source: Bill Longcore/ScienceSource Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Inherited and Genetic Disorders: When Development Deviates from the Norm (3 of 3) Klinefelter syndrome results from the presence of an extra X chromosome. Intersex persons are born with a rare combination of chromosomes, gene patterns, and sexual organ configurations. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genetic Counseling: Predicting the Future from the Genes of the Present (1 of 4) LO 2.7 Describe the role of genetic counselors and differentiate between different forms of prenatal testing. Genetic counseling focuses on helping people deal with issues related to inherited disorders. Genetic counselors use a variety of data, such as: – Thorough family history – Physical examination – Blood, skin, and urine samples, to isolate and examine specific chromosomes – Karyotype: a chart containing enlarged photos of each of the chromosomes Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genetic Counseling: Predicting the Future from the Genes of the Present (2 of 4) Prenatal Testing Ultrasound sonography: a process in which highfrequency sound waves scan the mother’s womb to produce an image of the unborn baby Chorionic villus sampling (CVS): a test to find genetic defects; involves taking samples of hair-like material that surrounds the embryo Amniocentesis: identifies genetic defects by examining a small sample of fetal cells drawn by a needle inserted into the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Amniocentesis In amniocentesis, a sample of fetal cells is withdrawn from the amniotic sac and used to identify a number of genetic defects. Source: BSIP SA/Alamy Stock Photo Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genetic Counseling: Predicting the Future from the Genes of the Present (3 of 4) Screening for Future Problems Huntington’s disease and more than a thousand other disorders can be predicted based on genetic testing. Although such testing may bring welcome relief from future worries if the results are negative, positive results may produce just the opposite effect. Genetic testing is a complicated issue; it rarely provides a simple yes or no answer as to whether an individual will be susceptible to a disorder. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 2-3: Some Disorders Identifiable Through DNA-Based Genetic Tests (1 of 3) Disease Description Alzheimer’s disease Late-onset variety of senile dementia Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s disease) Progressive motor function loss leading to paralysis and death Breast and ovarian cancer (inherited) Early onset tumors in breasts and ovaries Cystic fibrosis Thick mucus accumulations in lungs and chronic infections in lungs and pancreas Down syndrome Mild to moderate intellectual disability Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 2-3: Some Disorders Identifiable Through DNA-Based Genetic Tests (2 of 3) Disease Description Duchenne muscular dystrophy (Becker muscular dystrophy) Severe to mild muscle wasting, deterioration, weakness Fragile X syndrome Intellectual disability Hemophilia A and B Bleeding disorders Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancers Huntington’s disease Early onset tumors in colon and sometimes other organs Progressive neurological degeneration, usually beginning in midlife Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 2-3: Some Disorders Identifiable Through DNA-Based Genetic Tests (3 of 3) Disease Description Neurofibromatosis, type 1 Multiple benign nervous system tumors that can be disfiguring; cancers Progressive intellectual disability due to missing enzyme; correctable by diet Phenylketonuria Sickle cell disease Blood cell disorder, chronic pain and infections Spinal muscular atrophy Severe, usually lethal progressive muscle-wasting disorder in children Seizures, paralysis; fatal neurological disease of early childhood Tay-Sachs disease Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: 2D and 4D Ultrasounds Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genetic Counseling: Predicting the Future from the Genes of the Present (4 of 4) Are “Designer Babies” in Our Future? With preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), a newly fertilized embryo can be screened for a variety of genetic diseases before it is implanted in the mother’s uterus. With germ line therapy, cells are taken from an embryo and then replaced after the defective genes they contain have been repaired. Concerns have been raised about these scientific advances leading to the development of “designer babies”—infants that have been genetically manipulated to have traits their parents wish for. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. From Research to Practice 1 The Promise of CRISPR: Can We Create Made-to-Order Babies? And Should We? CRISPR is an acronym that refers to the clustered repeated sequences in bacterial DNA that allows them to target and destroy attacking viruses. Scientists turned it into a tool that can edit DNA. It offers the potential to prevent and cure devastating infectious and genetic diseases, and to eliminate forms of deafness and blindness or certain mental illnesses. But could it also be used to engineer traits of offspring? Where do we draw the line? Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Interaction of Heredity and Environment The Role of the Environment in Determining the Expression of Genes: From Genotypes to Phenotypes Studying Development: How Much Is Nature? How Much Is Nurture? Genetics and the Environment: Working Together Psychological Disorders: The Role of Genetics and Environment Can Genes Influence the Environment? Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Role of the Environment in Determining the Expression of Genes: From Genotypes to Phenotypes (1 of 2) LO 2.8 Explain how the environment and genetics work together to determine human characteristics. Behavior is due to both genetic and environmental factors. Individual’s temperament: the patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Role of the Environment in Determining the Expression of Genes: From Genotypes to Phenotypes (2 of 2) Interaction of Factors Multifactorial transmission: the determination of traits by a combination of both genetic and environmental factors in which a genotype provides a range within which a phenotype may be expressed Some genotypes are not as sensitive to the environment as others are. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-8: Factors Impacting Intelligence Intelligence may be explained by a range of differing possible sources, spanning the nature–nurture continuum. Which of these explanations do you find most convincing, given the evidence discussed in the chapter? Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Studying Development: How Much Is Nature? How Much Is Nurture? (1 of 4) LO 2.9 Summarize how researchers study the interaction of genetic and environmental factors in development. Nonhuman Animal Studies: Controlling Both Genetics and Environment Laboratory animals can be bred to share genetic backgrounds and be observed in different environments to explore the effects of these environments. Conversely, researchers can examine genetically different animals in similar environments to determine the role of genetics. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Studying Development: How Much Is Nature? How Much Is Nurture? (2 of 4) Contrasting Relatedness and Behavior: Adoption, Twin, and Family Studies Research with human twins can be used to study the effects of genes and the environment. Differences between monozygotic twins separated at birth are more likely due to different environments, although data from such studies can include some bias. If monozygotic twins are more similar than dizygotic twins in a particular trait, then we can assume that genetics plays a role. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Studying Twins Monozygotic and dizygotic twins present opportunities to learn about the relative contributions of heredity and situational factors. What can psychologists learn from studying twins? Source: ZUMA Press, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Studying Development: How Much Is Nature? How Much Is Nurture? (3 of 4) Contrasting Relatedness and Behavior: Adoption, Twin, and Family Studies (continued) People who are unrelated but share the same environment show environmental influences. Researchers study biological parents and their children versus adoptive parents and their children to see effects of heredity versus environment. Bottom line: virtually all traits, characteristics, and behaviors are the joint result of the combination and interaction of nature and nurture. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Studying Development: How Much Is Nature? How Much Is Nurture? (4 of 4) Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance: When Nature Becomes Nurture An individual’s life experiences can be passed down to children, grandchildren, and subsequent generations. Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: instead of changing genetic code, life experiences change the parts of DNA that switch individual genes on or off When an event such as malnourishment or drug use affects the DNA “switches” in sperm or eggs, the alterations can be passed on to future generations. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Genetic Mechanisms and Behavioral Genetics Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genetics and the Environment: Working Together (1 of 4) LO 2.10 Explain how genetics and the environment jointly influence physical traits, intelligence, and personality. Physical Traits: Family Resemblances Monozygotic twins are the most extreme example of how genetically similar people share physical traits, such as height or weight. Genetics also influences similarity in blood pressure, respiration rates, and longevity. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genetics and the Environment: Working Together (2 of 4) Intelligence: More Research, More Controversy Intelligence is a central characteristic that differentiates humans from other species. Genetics plays a significant role in intelligence. The impact of genetics on intelligence increases with age. Investigators are divided on the question of the degree to which intelligence is inherited. Environmental factors are also profoundly influential. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-9: Genetics and IQ The closer the genetic link between two individuals, the greater the correspondence between their IQ scores. Why is there a difference in the median correlation of IQs between children reared together and siblings reared together? Alternatively, why is there a difference in the median correlation of IQs between children reared together and siblings reared apart? How would you characterize the influence of genetics and environment on IQ? (Source: Based on Bouchard & McGue, 1981.) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genetics and the Environment: Working Together (3 of 4) Genetic and Environmental Influences on Personality: Born to Be Outgoing? Increasing evidence suggests that some personality traits have genetic roots. – Neuroticism is the degree of emotional stability an individual characteristically displays. – Extroversion is the degree to which a person seeks to be with others, to behave in an outgoing manner, and generally to be sociable. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genetic and Environmental Factors Although genetic factors clearly play a significant role in the development of intelligence, the level of environmental enrichment is also crucial. Source: dotshock/Shutterstock Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Genetics and the Environment: Working Together (4 of 4) Genetic and Environmental Influences on Personality: Born to Be Outgoing? (continued) Evidence of the genetic link to personality traits comes from direct examination of genes and studies of twins. Certain traits reflect the contribution of genetics more than others, such as social potency and traditionalism. Political attitudes, religious interests and values, and attitudes toward human sexuality also have genetic components. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-10: Inheriting Traits These traits are among the personality factors that are related most closely to genetic factors. The higher the percentage, the greater the degree to which the trait reflects the influence of heredity. Do these figures mean that “leaders are born, not made”? Why or why not? (Source: Adapted from Tellegen et al., 1988.) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychological Disorders: The Role of Genetics and Environment LO 2.11 Explain the role genetics and the environment play in the development of psychological disorders. Several psychological disorders have been shown to be related, at least in part, to genetic factors: – Schizophrenia – Major depressive disorders – Alcoholism – Autism spectrum disorder – Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-11: The Genetics of Schizophrenia The psychological disorder schizophrenia has clear genetic components. The closer the genetic links between someone with schizophrenia and another family member, the more likely it is that the other person will also develop schizophrenia. (Source: Based on Gottesman, 1991.) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Developmental Diversity and Your Life Cultural Differences in Physical Arousal: Might a Culture’s Philosophical Outlook Be Determined by Genetics? Developmental psychologist Jerome Kagan and his colleagues speculate that philosophical approaches could reflect, in part, genetic factors. The controversial suggestion is based on well-confirmed findings that show clear differences in temperament between White and Asian children. But, for instance, environmental conditions can have a significant effect. So the notion is intriguing, but more research is needed. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Can Genes Influence the Environment? LO 2.12 Describe ways in which genes influence the environment. Sandra Scarr suggests three ways a child’s genetic predisposition might influence their environment: – Children focus on aspects of their environment that are most connected with their genetically determined abilities; an active child will gravitate toward sports. – A passive gene–environment influence would be a sportsoriented parent with good coordination genes, who provides opportunities for the child to play sports. – The genetically driven temperament of a child may evoke certain environmental influences, such as an infant’s demanding behavior causing parents to be more attentive. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Prenatal Growth and Change Fertilization: The Moment of Conception The Stages of the Prenatal Period: The Onset of Development Pregnancy Problems The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Fertilization: The Moment of Conception LO 2.13 Explain the process of fertilization. Fertilization: the process by which a sperm and an ovum —the male and female gametes—join to form a single new cell When sperm enter the vagina, they begin a winding journey that takes them through the cervix, the opening of the uterus, and into the fallopian tube, where fertilization may take place if the sperm meets an ovum. Each sperm and ovum contains all the genetic data necessary to produce a new human. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Reproductive Systems: Sex and Fertilization Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-12: Anatomy of the Female Reproductive Organs The basic anatomy of the female reproductive organs is illustrated in this cutaway view. (Source: Based on Moore & Persaud, 2003.) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Stages of the Prenatal Period: The Onset of Development (1 of 3) LO 2.14 Summarize the three stages of prenatal development. The Germinal Stage: Fertilization to 2 Weeks Germinal stage: the first and shortest stage, which takes place during first 2 weeks following conception. – The zygote begins to divide and grow. – The stage is characterized by methodical cell division and attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall. – Cells become specialized. – The placenta forms, providing nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Stages of the Prenatal Period: The Onset of Development (2 of 3) The Embryonic Stage: 2 Weeks to 8 Weeks Embryonic stage: the period from 2 to 8 weeks following fertilization, during which significant growth occurs in the major organs and body systems. – The zygote is now an embryo, with three layers: ▪Ectoderm: outer layer forming skin, hair, teeth, sense organs, brain, and spinal cord ▪Endoderm: inner layer producing digestive system, liver, pancreas, and respiratory system ▪Mesoderm: between inner and outer layers; forms muscles, bones, blood, and circulatory system Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Stages of the Prenatal Period: The Onset of Development (3 of 3) The Fetal Stage: 8 Weeks to Birth Fetal stage: begins about 8 weeks after conception and continues until birth. – The developing child is called a fetus. – It dramatically increases in size and weight. – Organs become more differentiated and operational. – By 4 months, the mother can feel the fetus move. – The brain becomes increasingly sophisticated. – Hormones are released that lead to the increasing differentiation of male and female fetuses. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 2-5: Stages of the Prenatal Period Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-13: Body Proportions During the fetal stage, the proportions of the body change dramatically. At two months, the head represents about half the fetus, but by the time of birth, it is one-quarter of its total size. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Pregnancy Problems (1 of 4) LO 2.15 Describe the challenges that relate to pregnancy. Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) Some 6 percent of couples experience infertility—the inability to conceive after 12 to 18 months of trying to become pregnant. Produced by several causes: – Age of the parents – Men who produce too few sperm – Use of illicit drugs or cigarettes – Previous bouts of sexually transmitted diseases – Women who fail to release an egg through ovulation Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-14: Infertility Percentage of women who did not get pregnant in a 12-month period, despite having unprotected intercourse. (Source: Chandra et al., 2013) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Pregnancy Problems (2 of 4) Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) (continued) Artificial insemination: fertilization process in which sperm is placed directly into a vagina by a physician In vitro fertilization (IVF): ova are removed from ovaries; sperm are used to fertilize ova in a laboratory Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) and zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT): implanting an egg and sperm or fertilized egg in the fallopian tubes A surrogate mother is a woman who agrees to carry the child to term. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Pregnancy Problems (3 of 4) Ethical Issues Sex-selection techniques raise concerns. The quality of parenting in families who have used artificial means to conception may be superior to naturally conceived children. The psychological adjustment of children conceived artificially is no different from that of children conceived using natural techniques. Because widespread use of IVF is still recent, it is unknown what will happen with parents who are older. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Pregnancy Problems (4 of 4) Miscarriage and Abortion A miscarriage (medically known as a spontaneous abortion) occurs when a pregnancy ends before the developing child is able to survive outside the womb. – Some 15 to 20 percent of all pregnancies end in miscarriage. – The term stillbirth is used to describe the death of a developing child after 20 weeks or more. An abortion is a voluntary termination of a pregnancy. – Each year, more than 73 million pregnancies worldwide end in abortion. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development (1 of 8) LO 2.16 Describe the threats to the fetal environment and what can be done about them. Certain aspects of parental behavior, before and after conception, can produce lifelong consequences for the child. – Teratogen: an environmental agent such as a virus, chemical, or other factor that produces a birth defect – At some phases of prenatal development, a teratogen may have minimal impact; at other, consequences may be significant. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 2-15: Teratogen Sensitivity Depending on their state of development, some parts of the body vary in their sensitivity to teratogens. (Source: Moore, 1974.) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development (2 of 8) Mother’s Diet A mother’s diet plays an important role in bolstering the development of the fetus. A varied diet high in nutrients results in fewer complications during pregnancy, an easier labor, and a generally healthier baby. With 800 million hungry people in the world, the problem of diet is of immense global concern. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development (3 of 8) Mother’s Age Mothers over 30 are at a greater risk for a variety of pregnancy and birth complications than younger ones: – Premature birth – Low birth weight – Down syndrome Adolescent mothers are more likely to have premature deliveries, and the mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that for mothers in their twenties. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development (4 of 8) Mother’s Prenatal Support Many teenage mothers do not have enough economic and social support. – These adverse factors can affect infant health. – This situation prevents mothers from getting good prenatal care and parenting support after the baby is born. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. From Research to Practice 2 The Color of Pregnancy: Can Institutional Racism Account for Racial Health Disparities? Researchers have found large racial and ethnic disparities across all health-related indicators, in particular for Black mothers and their infants. Black women are more likely to experience serious health concerns or die from birth-related complications. Black women are more likely to experience preterm births and have low-weight babies. The mortality rate for Black infants is 50 percent higher than that of White or Hispanic infants. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development (5 of 8) Mother’s Health Illness in a pregnant woman can have negative consequences. – Rubella (German measles) prior to the 11th week can cause blindness, deafness, heart defects, or brain damage. – Chicken pox may cause birth defects. – Mumps may increase the risk of miscarriage. – Syphilis and gonorrhea can be transmitted to the fetus. – AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) can affect newborns. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development (6 of 8) Mother’s Drug Use Use of legal and illegal drugs poses risks to unborn child: – Aspirin can lead to fetal bleeding. – Thalidomide causes missing limbs. – DES (diethylstilbestrol) later causes cervical and vaginal cancer in daughters. – Marijuana can restrict oxygen to the fetus. – Cocaine restricts blood flow and oxygen; babies may be born addicted. – Opioids can cause neonatal abstinence syndrome. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development (7 of 8) Mother’s Use of Alcohol and Tobacco Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): pregnant mother consumes substantial quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, potentially resulting in intellectual disability and delayed growth in the child Fetal alcohol effects (FAE): children display some of the problems of FASD due to the mother’s consumption of alcohol during pregnancy Smoking reduces oxygen and increases carbon monoxide in the mother’s blood; increases possibility of miscarriage, abnormally low birthweight, and death during infancy. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Drinking While Pregnant Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Prenatal Environment: Threats to Development (8 of 8) Do Fathers Affect the Prenatal Environment? Secondhand smoke can affect the mother’s health. Alcohol and illegal drugs impair sperm and can lead to chromosomal damage at conception. Stress produces an unhealthy environment for the mother. Sperm damage may result from father’s exposure to environmental toxins in the workplace. Fathers who are physically or emotionally abusive to their pregnant partners can damage their unborn children. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Development in Your Life Optimizing the Prenatal Environment For individuals who are planning to become pregnant, several precautions are in order. Eat well, both before and during (and after, for that matter!) pregnancy. Don’t use alcohol and other drugs. Don’t use any drug unless directed by a physician. Monitor caffeine intake. Whether or not you are pregnant, don’t smoke. Exercise regularly. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.