HZT4U Exam Review PDF

MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT Introduction ​ The Apology: Socrates’ Trial ​ Meletus's Argument on Youth Improvement ​ Meletus asserts that laws make people good, implying that the entire Athens population, except Socrates, positive...

MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT Introduction ​ The Apology: Socrates’ Trial ​ Meletus's Argument on Youth Improvement ​ Meletus asserts that laws make people good, implying that the entire Athens population, except Socrates, positively influences youth. ​ Socrates uses an analogy to illustrate this, comparing horse improvement to youth improvement. ​ Socrates suggests that only those with specialized knowledge can truly improve horses, while the majority might cause harm. ​ This argument challenges the notion that the entire population of Athens, except Socrates, positively influences the youth. ​ Socrates' Statement on Corruption ​ Socrates argues that youth corruption is not intentional, but due to ignorance rather than malicious intent. Knowledge and virtue are closely linked, and corrupting youth implies a lack of understanding of truth. Socrates' role as a philosopher seeking wisdom contradicts his corrupted youth. ​ Socrates' Contradiction in Meletus' Indictment ​ Socrates argues that Meletus' indictment contradicts his belief in gods. He argues that Meletus accused Socrates of not believing in the city's gods, implying his atheism. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Socrates questions Meletus about his beliefs, questioning if it's possible to believe in spiritual things while not believing in gods. ​ Meletus admits to believing in spiritual beings, suggesting Socrates must believe in some form of divinity. ​ The contradiction arises as Meletus asserts Socrates doesn't believe in the city's gods, while Socrates' actions and beliefs suggest a belief in spiritual things. ​ Introduction to Logic ​ Logic Origins and Definitions ​ Logic originates from the Greek word logos, meaning speech or reason. ​ It involves correct reasoning and sound judgements. ​ It involves making sound arguments using language. ​ It aims to search for truth through reasoning. ​ It involves using language to form equations to prove a point. ​ Definition of Logic ​ Premises: statements presented in an argument as reasons for accepting the conclusion. ​ Conclusion: statements that an argument is intended to demonstrate or prove. ​ Valid: a conclusion that follows from the premises by logical necessity. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Argument: a group of statements consisting of premises and conclusions. ​ Sound: valid arguments with true premises are sound. ​ Episodic Theories ​ Epistemology: The theory of knowledge. ​ Fallacy: an incorrect way of reasoning. ​ Law of noncontradiction: nothing can be said to be and not to be something at the same time and in the same respect. ​ Deductive and Inductive Arguments ​ Deductive reasoning: draws a specific conclusion from a general statement. ​ Inductive reasoning: shows that the conclusion is probably true based on the evidence. ​ Most reasoning and generalizations are based on Inductive arguments. Human Nature ​ Traditional Western View of Human Nature ​ All humans possess a conscious, rational self with a purpose. ​ Plato suggests humans can control appetite and aggressive impulses using reason. ​ Appetite: Desires like thirst, hunger, sexual. ​ Aggression: Spirit. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Reason: Ability to think, reason, draw conclusions. ​ Aristotle: Human nature is inherent in our world, explained without separate forms. ​ Reason is the most crucial feature of human nature. ​ Darwinian Challenge to the Traditional Western View ​ Darwin's theory suggests humans evolved through natural selection and random variations. ​ Critics argue this view implies human nature lacks purpose and uniqueness. ​ Human reason is deemed no more "God-like" than any other animal. ​ Existentialism ​ No fixed human nature as humans are self-created through free choices and actions. ​ Existentialism asserts a self as a freely choosing, self-creating, active agent. ​ Human existence precedes essence, defined by actions. ​ Responsibility for our lives is essential. ​ Feminist Challenge to Traditional Western View ​ Feminists argue that our concepts of reason, appetites, emotions, mind, and body are biased in favor of men. ​ The rationalist and Judeo-Christian view frames these concepts as sexist, viewing reason, rationality, and mind as superior "male" traits. ​ Aristotle's concept of the pure soul ruling over the impure body and reason overcoming body desires and pleasures is sexist. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Even if women are capable of reason and rationality, it still comes from a male perspective, as reason is a superior male trait. ​ Even if "female" traits of feeling and emotion are valued as "male" traits, it is still sexist as they are valued by males and women should be content with their societal roles. ​ Dualist View of Human Nature ​ Humans are immaterial minds with material bodies. ​ Material body is observable, characterized by color, size, shape, and weight. ​ Mind, though not observable, has consciousness. ​ Interaction between immaterial and material entities is unclear. ​ Immaterial mind must be distinct from the body. ​ Thinking is the essence of a thing. ​ No -Self View of Human Nature ​The No-Self View ​Some philosophers argue that the self is an illusion and does not endure over time. ​This view contrasts with Western thought, which emphasizes individual identity. ​Implications of the No-Self View ​Accepting the no-self view can alleviate suffering by reducing attachment to identity. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT Metaphysics ​ Western Materialism ​ Materialism Overview ​ Materialism asserts that only matter exists in the world, with no non-physical entities. ​ Inductive generalizations and deductive reasoning are deemed unreliable. ​ Key Philosophers and Their Contributions ​ Philosophers: Democritus, Hobbes, and Offray. ​ Hobbes: Believes in measurable aspects of reality, focusing on body motions in space. ​ Julien Offray: Believes in reliance on experience and observation, not philosophers. ​ Objection: Understanding Human Consciousness ​ Focuses on understanding human consciousness, including thoughts, dreams, and emotions. ​ Questions the existence of conscious experiences beyond physical states. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Idealism ​ Idealism: Subjective and Objective Idealism ​ Subjective Idealism ​ Founded by George Berkeley (1685-1753). ​ Believes reality is composed of minds and their ideas, not matter. ​ Allegories like Plato’s Allegory of the Cave and St. Augustine's view of the spirit world as fully real. ​ Distinguishes between short-lived, changeable ideas and more orderly, regular, enduring ideas. ​ Perceptions are me-dependent, relying on our senses. ​ Perceptions include sight, touch, and smell. ​ No other knowledge of things beyond these perceptions. ​ Objective Idealism ​ Ideas exist in an objective state, independent of our perceptions. ​ Orderly perceptions derive their uniformity, consistency, and continuity from God's mind. ​ The world of perceptions does not depend on our mind, but on God. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Objections include understanding God's mind with human perception and the necessity of a God's mind for things to exist. ​ Pragmatism ​ Pragmatism aims to change the way we perceive and act, moving beyond the limitations of Materialism and Idealism. ​ John Dewey, a pragmatist, argues that philosophy arises from our social and emotional lives to defend human interests and wishes. ​ Pragmatists like Peirce, James, and Dewey reject the idea of philosophy as a self-contained discipline with its own problems. ​ Pragmatism is a reaction to traditional systems of philosophy, like materialism and idealism, and their endless debates about reality. ​ James' Sub-Universes include the world of sense, science, ideal relations, idols, supernatural worlds, individual opinion, and worlds of madness and vagary. ​ Objections to Pragmatism include the claim that pragmatists only know their own reality, the possibility of an independent reality outside our minds, and the necessity of humans pursuing what interests them. ​ Antirealism and objections ​ Antirealism: Rejects the belief in a single reality. ​ Believes that the world's features depend on how we describe, perceive, and think about it. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Believes that our knowledge is strictly dependent on our word. ​ Hilary Putnam: ​ Argues that there is no single answer to a question. ​ Feminist Antirealism: ​ Dale Spender formulates a feminist version of antirealism, arguing that feminism is falling into male-defined patterns. ​ Postmodernism: ​ Rejects the view of a single reality and promotes a scientific understanding of many realities. ​ Objections to Antirealism: ​ Questions the validity of worlds created by different language and thinking. ​ John Searle (1932) argues that the description of reality depends on our language. ​ Realism vs Antirealism ​ Realism is the opposite of antirealism, asserting that objects exist independently of our language, thoughts, perceptions, and beliefs. ​ Realists believe world features would remain unchanged without human perception, thought, or language description. ​ Realism asserts an objective reality, regardless of confirmation. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Determinism ​ Views human actions as completely determined by prior events. ​ Human actions are not free, influenced by previous conditions and laws of nature. ​ All actions are causally determined by these conditions. ​ Determinism contradicts the idea of individual responsibility for actions. ​ Libertarianism ​ Advocates for individual control over actions and freedom to make choices. ​ Focuses on individual responsibility and commitment to actions. ​ Influenced by Soren Kierkegaard, a philosopher known for his focus on action rather than knowledge. ​ Humans are seen as infinite possibilities, capable of bringing new ideas into the world. ​ Jean-Paul Sartre emphasizes the intention behind actions, focusing on future situations. ​ Libertarianism promotes freedom of consciousness and moral responsibility for actions. ​ It argues that not all actions are causally determined by previous conditions and laws of nature. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ God's Existence and the Problem of Evil ​ Ontological Argument for God's Existence ​ Anselm's argument suggests that God exists in reality, not just in our minds. ​ Kant argues that Anselm's logic is flawed, arguing that existence is not a quality. ​ Existence cannot be greater or lesser, as it exists or not. ​ Reply to Kant's Argument ​ Kant argues that Anselm wrongly assumed existence is a real property or "predicate" in the concept of a thing. ​ He suggests that if something exists in reality, it has more power than if it exists only in our minds. ​ Cosmological Argument for God's Existence ​ First Mover and First Cause Proofs ​ Aquinas's first cosmological argument states that things in the universe are moving. ​ Any object in the universe must have been moved by another moving object. ​ The chain of moving objects depends on the motion of earlier objects, leading back to the original motion. ​ The motion cannot go back forever, indicating the existence of a 1st mover. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ The 1st mover must initiate or start the move, not be part of it. ​ The Argument from Causation ​ Aquinas's second cosmological proof states that some things are caused to exist by other things. ​ The series of causes cannot extend back infinitely, implying the existence of a first cause, which is God. ​ Objections ​ Sir Isaac Newton's three laws of motion and universal gravitation suggest an objection to Aquinas's motion argument. ​ Aquinas's assertion that there cannot be an infinite regress of movers or causes is also a significant objection. ​ Design Argument for God's Existence ​ The cosmological argument fails to prove the existence of a loving personal God. ​ Watches and living organisms have precisely adjusted parts, suggesting they were designed by an intelligent agent. ​ Hume's objection suggests that the order in animals, eyes, or universes may not have been produced similarly to a watch. ​ Charles Darwin's objection to Paley's theory of evolution argues that natural selection is not an intelligent being's creation. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Dembski's argument for intelligent design suggests it requires intelligence to select a complex arrangement that would not be selected without an intelligent agent. ​ Critics argue that some physical process, not God, selected the "improbable" features that make life possible. Epistemology & Truth ​ Rationalism ​ Rationalism is the belief that reason, without the aid of sensory perception, is capable of arriving at knowledge, and undeniable truths about the world. ​ When rationalists claim that knowledge is based on reason rather than perception, such as seeing and hearing, they mean that we do not rely on sensory experience for all of the fundamental knowledge we have. ​ Rationalists often point to mathematics and logic as examples of reason-based knowledge. ​ Empiricism (the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience) ​ Locke's Empiricism: Theory of Ideas, Primary and Secondary Qualities, and Knowledge Independent of Minds ​ Locke's Theory of Ideas ​ Argues that none of our ideas are innate. ​ Distinguishes between simple and complex ideas. ​ Ideas and Reality MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Knowledge arises from sensory experience. ​ Two ways to answer the relationship between our ideas and reality: indistinguishable from our ideas or separate. ​ Primary and Secondary Qualities ​ Primary qualities are "in" the things we perceive, forming the real world. ​ Secondary qualities are subjective aspects of things, not "in" the object but sensations. ​ The Lockean Bottom Line ​ We know how things are because our ideas of primary qualities resemble the primary qualities of objects in the external world. ​ Problems for Locke’s Account ​ It's unclear how we can explain the claims that some of our ideas are independent of the real world and that we have knowledge when our ideas resemble that world. ​ Berkeley’s Subjective Empiricism ​ Denies Locke’s claim that primary qualities are real. ​ Argues that primary qualities exist only in the mind, not external material bodies. ​ Argues that we cannot use our senses to verify that external objects cause sensations. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Hume and Skepticism ​ Devises Locke and Berkeley's empiricism to absolute skepticism. ​ Denies knowledge about external world existence and phenomena' causes. ​ Arguments assumptions are based on custom and habit. ​ Kant’s transcendental idealism ​ Kant’s new viewpoint, transcendental idealism, holds that the world we perceive and know through science is a construct of the mind, but one that depends on the senses. ​ Science and Knowledge ​ - Francis Bacon ​ Bacon posits science is based on inductive reasoning, moving from specific observations to general laws. ​ Mill outlines the scientific method's three features: accumulation of observations, generalization, and repeated confirmation. ​ Bacon suggests that as more facts are gathered, the probability of a "law" increases as it converges on more specific instances. ​ - Karl Popper ​ Advocated for the hypothetical method in the 1900s. ​ Believed in the need for scientific knowledge to be proven right and challenged. ​ Theory credibility increases as it holds up while being disproved. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Encouraged the evolution of understanding through constant attempts to disprove established theories. ​ - Thomas Kuhn ​Knowledge is a product of scientific communities ​Scientists are trained within the paradigm of their community ​Ex. Biologists accept Darwin’s theory of evolution ​Ex. Astronomers accept Newton and Einstein’s theories ​These theories are accepted with the goal of using them as a basis to extend our understanding ​ Correspondence Theory of Truth ​ Believes statements or beliefs are true if they align with real-world facts. ​ Example: 'Water boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit at sea level' is true as it directly matches the fact. ​ In essence, beliefs align with real facts. ​ Coherence Theory of Truth ​ Beliefs are true if they align with a group of accepted beliefs. ​ Truth is about coherence between beliefs, not correspondence between beliefs and facts. ​ Coherence refers to the consistency and support of beliefs. ​ Geometry has a limited system of beliefs consistent with truths. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Beliefs like "it is raining" and "it is not raining" are inconsistent, but cohere with each other. ​ Pragmatic Theory of Truth ​ Developed in the USA over the last century, originating from writings of Charles S. Pierce, William James, and John Dewey. ​ Beliefs about reality are meaningful only if they have consequences. ​ Reason's value is determined by its effectiveness in guiding action, problem-solving, and improving outcomes. Ethics ​ Ethical Relativism ​ Ethical Relativism (moral relativism) is the view that not only do a person’s beliefs about moral right and wrong depend on her culture, but that moral right and wrong themselves depends on a person’s culture ​ Each society has a culture and moral standards are part of that culture ​ A behavior is morally right for a person if and only if the moral standards of her culture say it is morally right ​ Ethical Egoism ​ Some ethics claim that when deciding the morality of an action, only the good and bad choices of the person doing it matter MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Ethical egoism contends contends that we act normally when we act in a way that best promote our own long-term interests ​ Hedonism ​ Epicurus posits intrinsically good consequences are those that produce pleasure, while bad consequences are those that produce pain. ​ He advises focusing on pure pleasures that don't produce pain. ​ Epicurus advocates for a life of sensory moderation and social interaction for pleasure. ​ Other consequentialists argue for intrinsic goods like knowledge, power, beauty, or love. ​ Utilitarianism ​ In contrast to ethical egoism, utilitarianism asserts that the standard of morality is the promotion of good for everyone and not just for oneself. ​ Ultilists claim that a morally right action is one that produces more good or fewer bad consequences for everyone than any other action that could be performed in its place. ​ Natural Law Ethics ​ Stoic Natural Law: ​ Stoic followers believe in a universal natural order in the world. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ They believe that humans can discover this order through reason. ​ Thomas Aquinas' Natural Law: ​ Morality arises from our natural inclinations. ​ Actions that destroy these goods are morally wrong. ​ Intention behind the action and proportionality of the good effect are crucial. ​ When faced with conflicts among basic goods, the intention behind the action and the proportionality of the good effect are crucial. ​ Thomistic Natural Law: ​ Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) argued that reason can discover God's commands by reflecting on human nature. ​ He believed that God imposed certain "natural laws" on humans through the natural inclinations built into human nature. ​ Divine Command Theory ​ The divine command theory is a non consequentialist normative theory that says we should always do the will of God. Whatever the situation be, if we do what God commands, then we do the right thing; if we disobey God's command, then, no matter what the consequences, we do wrong. ​ There are two main types of divine command theories. ​ One type holds that God's commands are found are found in sacred scriptures and the other says that God's commands are found in human nature MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Kant’s Categorical Imperative ​ A morally good will is when a person acts in a way that others in similar situations should. ​ A maxim is the reason a person in a situation has for doing what they do. ​ Duty and the 1st Version of The Categorical Imperative: ​ Duty is the necessity of acting from respect for a law. ​ Law is an objective principle valid for all rational beings, hence everyone has a duty to be nice. ​ The Second Version of The Categorical Imperative: ​ People should not be used as objects to achieve goals but should be allowed to participate in actions. ​ Buddhist Ethics ​ Buddhist ethics is not reducible to any if the ethical theories we have thus far considered ​ As opposed to consequentialist it does not aim at advancing the individuals or societies happiness although it is concerned with freeing sentient beings from suffering ​ It is not an ethic of duty either whether this be conceived in terms of divine command theory ​ Virtue Ethics ​ Focuses on virtues that make us morally good persons, not just rules. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Alasdair MacIntyre's approach, also known as virtue ethics, emphasizes habitual responses to circumstances. ​ Aristotle's Virtue Ethics emphasizes the "mean" between excess and deficiency. ​ Moderation is key to happiness, as it fulfills basic human purpose and function. Political Philosophy ​ The Social Contract Theory - Different perspectives ​ - Hobbes ​ Hobbes argues that the state is an artificial creation designed to protect humans. ​ He asserts that the government provides moral rights, life, liberty, and property. ​ Hobbes portrays humans in the "state of nature" as selfish, unsocial creatures driven by personal gain, security, and respect. ​ Without government, life is constant struggle and war, leading to the need for a ruler to enforce peace. ​ John Locke and Thomas Hobbes both believe in the rational capacity of humans to form a government to protect their rights. ​ - Locke ​ Advocates for a state of nature where people obey moral law. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Questions the necessity of government due to the inherent respect for life, liberty, and property. ​ Advocates for unbiased judges to resolve disputes and the power to enforce laws. ​ Argues that property ownership leads to inequality, murder, and war. ​ Views the social contract as a fraud against the people, not a willing agreement. ​ Proposes a social contract involving the people as the sovereign, allowing them to create laws for public good. ​ Believes in a direct democracy where citizens must obey laws or be forced to do so. ​ Advocates for a "civil state" where security, justice, liberty, and property are protected and enjoyed by all. ​ Locke: People form government to protect rights, government cannot infringe on them. ​ Hobbes: People form government to protect from violence, government can take away moral rights. ​ Both believe humans are rationally capable of making decisions. ​ Hobbes significantly influenced 18th Century political events. ​ - Rawls MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Hume's social contract theory is a historical fiction, but the thought experiment provides a perspective on government. ​ Ideal government allows people to pursue their desired life, providing equal rights and political opportunities. ​ "Justice as Fairness" suggests that authority or government is justified if we would consent to it. ​ John Rawls' ideal society caters to individual needs, not equal treatment. ​ Society would be designed to help individuals like children or the elderly. ​ - Hume ​ Social Contract is a made up fantasy. ​ There never was a social contract. ​ Governments were established by either conquest or or our past down through the right of succession. ​ Where is the evidence for this social contact? ​ - Regarding Women ​ Authority over adults depends on consent. ​ Social contract establishes state as means of citizen consent. ​ Questions arise about traditional male dominance over women, especially in families. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Philosophers like Hobbes and Locke challenge traditional dominance. ​ Communitarianism ​ Social contract theory has overemphasized individualism, neglecting the community. ​ Communitarian views assert that the state is not an artificial construct, crucial for human development. ​ The state should support cultural traditions, including religion, morality, and values, forming our identity. ​ Hegel emphasized the state's importance over individuality and human associations. ​ Michael Sandel argues that each state should support certain cultural traditions, arguing that the government should educate its people about these traditions and accept their values. ​ Justice as Merit ​ Justice as merit posits that benefits and burdens should be distributed unequally based on individuals' abilities, effort, achievement, or social status. ​ Plato and Aristotle defend this principle, arguing that natural talents and abilities make society function best. ​ Aristotle also defended this principle, stating that justice is about giving unequal individuals their due. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Both philosophers argued that justice is treated according to abilities, achievements, and social statuses. ​ The principle of formal justice suggests that people should be treated the same, except for relevant differences. ​ Justice as Equality ​ Equal” means the same. ​ We widely believe that everyone is entitled to roughly the same kind of basic education, that the sexes and races should be treated the same, that individuals should be treated the same before the law, and so on. ​ Strict egalitarians say that there is no relevant difference among people when it comes to justice. Justice demands strict equality. ​ Justice as Social Utility ​ Justice promotes the general welfare, i.e., the well-being or happiness of citizens. ​ John Stuart Mill's theory of utilitarianism suggests society should minimize social harms and maximize social benefits. ​ The justice of any institution, policy, or program depends on its expediency, the extent to which it will be advantageous to society. ​ Justice based on need and ability ​ Emphasizes public ownership of wealth and control of business and industry. ​ Karl Marx developed socialist justice principles based on need and ability. MORE MULTIPLE CHOICE AND SAME TEST FORMAT ​ Marx's slogan interprets formal justice differently. ​