Philosophy Exam Review Chart PDF

Exam Review Chart Pre-Socratic Philosophers Philosopher Type Source of Contribution Influence Everything Socrates N/A N/A ​ F...

Exam Review Chart Pre-Socratic Philosophers Philosopher Type Source of Contribution Influence Everything Socrates N/A N/A ​ Father of Philosopher ​ Every philosopher after him ​ Not a relativist and believes in absolute truth ​ Plato (his student): in his ideas regarding and objectivism objectivism ​ Believe “an unexamined life is not worth living” ​ Argued that is was more valuable to stand by his beliefs even if it kill him, than to live a lie Thales Water ​ First philosopher ​ Anaximander (his student) in his belief that water is a part of the ‘boundless’ which he believes defines being Anaximander Boundless ​ First evolutionist N/A (unified ​ Student of Thales Corporeal substance Monists that defines being) Heraclitus Fire ​ Fire has the ability to mold/shape things. ​ Aristotle: his belief in an empirical epistemology ​ He believes in empiricism ​ Empedocles: in his belief in constant flux. ​ Believes in constant flux (due to logos). Zeno N/A ​ Motion is an illusion ​ Aristotle: his paradox of Achilles and the tortoise ​ Believed in the idea of infinity. For example, lead to Aristotle’s belief that infinity is impossible. in the Stadium example, there are an infinite number of steps necessary to make it to the end and therefore, you can never truly finish the race. Pythagoras Incorporeal Numbers ​ Believed in body-soul dualism (pressure of ​ Plato: heavily influenced him based on his beliefs Monists and Math desires from both the soul seeking virtue and in body-soul dualism, reincarnation, and the the body seeking desires), reincarnation and immortality of the soul the immortality of the soul Parmenides N/A ​ Change is an illusion, it is irrational ​ Plato: belief in rationalism and the belief in ○​ Change is a materialist view grasping the unity of the whole universe ○​ There is no empty space so change ​ Zeno (his student): the idea that change, motion and motion are impossible and space are not real Democritus Corporeal Atoms and ​ Mechanic view of the universe: ​ Plato: through his belief in the atomic universe Pluralists different ○​ We are unguided accidents, so we influenced Plato’s belief in the unchanging shapes have no intelligence or rationalism intelligible world. ○​ We are part of a machine and have no free will ​ First atomist Plato Aristotle Metaphysics ​ World of Forms (Ideal World): Plato focuses on ​ Actuality: what something actually is (at the present moment) the idea of forms (perfect versions of the ○​ This is in an essence, logos copies). Copies are found on Earth. ○​ The principle of intelligence or perfection ​ Plato is an idealist because he believes in an ​ Potentiality: Perfectibility of something eternal ideal ○​ The imperfection and incompleteness ​ Plato found a dualism (material vs. immaterial ○​ the principle of change  and perfect vs. imperfect) ○​ Everything has the actuality to be something and therefore has ​ The Divided Line: the possibility to change ○​ Intelligibile World: ○​ Potentiality can also not be observed but allows for change ​ Highest things in ​ Ex: By empirically studying the acorn, we know that it intelligible world is has the potential to become an oak tree, not a giraffe. If forms the acorn doesn’t have the right environment, it will not (understanding this be able to reach this potential (but this doesn't change is the goal for the actuality (essence) of acorns) philosophy) ○​ Pure potentiality is nothingness ​ Lower part of the intelligible ​ Pure energy is nothingness (but technically is also pure) world are matters understood by ​ deductive reasoning (math and ​ Substance: what something actually is (its essence) logic). Deduction implies valid ○​ Everything in nature changes, and therefore everything is arguments from an assumed composed of matter and form (expect matter and form starting place themselves) ​ Knowledge ​ The matter gets a new accidental form (ex: leaves is only possible of what is lies in change colour in the fall. The matter changes, not the the Intelligible world form) ​ True knowledge depends on the ○​ Form: answers to Actuality entire mind ​ Internal essences ○​ Sensible World: ​ Essence cannot be observed ​ Opinion is the only thing possible ​ Form is its essential nature, it is the limit of matter for the Sensible world ○​ Matter: answers to potentiality (change) ​ The potential of what something can become, not its actual form. ​ Our perception of matter does not allow us to fully interact with it. ​ We have encounters with the substance, but our senses are limiting  ​ Formless energy (this is only prime matter), but cannot be formless and never seen alone ​ Ex: a pile of dirt is composed of other particles and kinds of dirt ​ Any other reference to matter is form matter ​ Can never see matter alone ​ Prime matter: formless energy ​ Cannot be understood and comprehend in society ○​ Hylomorphism: form and matter are always found together ​ Accidents: Non-essential (accidental/perceivable) properties which do not have to exist in order for the object ot have its essence ○​ Ex: the chair is blue (this can be changed to red but this doesn’t stop it from being a chair) ​ Nature of Change: Aristotle believes that change can be seen through his 10 Categories. 2 types of change: ○​ Accidental: change in the accidental properties ​ Ex: leaves changes to red in fall ○​ Substantial: change in essences of something (what you believe something is changes) ​ Ex: when the lead dies (start to mold) ​ 4 Causes: ○​ Material: what it is made out of ○​ Formal: it’s essence (idea of it in your mind) ○​ Efficient/Instrumental: how it was made ○​ Final (*telos): the end/the aim/ultimate purpose Opposes (a 1.​ Atheism: because Plato believes in God 1.​ Atheism part of 2.​ Hedonism: because he believes that the more 2.​ Hedonism metaphysics) you feed into your desires, the more you will 3.​ Materialism desire them 4.​ Naturalism  3.​ Empiricism: because he believed it was 5.​ Mechanism unreliable, as standards and trends change 6.​ Relativism 4.​ Materialism: because they don’t believe in God, who is immaterial 5.​ Naturalism: because he believed in supernatural forces (standards which we cannot see) 6.​ Mechanism: because he didn’t believe that we don’t have free will 7.​ Relativism: because he thinks truth cannot be relative Epistemology ​ RATIONALISM: THEORY OF ​ EMPIRICISM: THEORY OF ABSTRACTION RECOLLECTION ​ Through empiricism and our sense, we are able to abstract (inductively) ​ Our souls are eternal → they hold memory from from the particulars and arrive at universals and truth before our lives (which is how we know of the world of forms). With this knowledge of the forms, we are able to arrive at the universals Ethics Plato’s 3 Powers of the Soul: Aristotle’s 3 Powers of the Soul: ​ Intellect (where we use the mind and reason) ​ Vegetative soul: desires nutrition (plants only have this) → Prudence/wisdom (wisdom perfects the ​ Sensory soul: sense perception (we share this with the animals) intellect) ​ Rational soul: consists of will and intellect (specifically human) ​ Death → the body loses the soul (due to hylomorphism) ​ Will (spiritual part) → Courage/Fortitude (courage perfects will) Means: something that is desired for the good of other things - “It's the means ​ Appetites (emotions) → Temperance to the ends” (temperance perfects appetite) ​ The ends become means to lead to a great end → Leads to the ​ Temperance is about DESIRING the good Summum Bonum (another way of saying greater good) ​ Harmony of the 3 powers leads to justice → ​ The meaning of life is trying to find the greatest good (for Aristotle: the when your emotions desire good, you have greeted good is happiness) justice Aristotle’s Happiness (→ means all you need is ___):  1.​ Immediate Gratification: pleasure (doing what you feel like doing) → Senses ○​ It is infermoral (need it again) ○​ Hedonist paradox: too much pleasure leads to pain 2.​ Comparative/Personal Achievement: anything that has to do with competition → Conscious 3.​ Contributive: giving to others → Conscience ○​ Likely with the right intentions ○​ Giving cannot be the eternal happiness because it will end 4.​ Ultimate Good: Summum Bonum → Transcendental Awareness ○​ Contemplation of eternal good (highest level of human intellectualization) ○​ Living by the ultimate good → highest level of happiness/greatest good ○​ Transcendental Awareness: aware that there is something beyond ​ Telos allows us to achieve transcendental awareness (we have to know our telos) ​ We have to know how to reach our potentiality ○​ Physical part of virtue is action (will/intellect) and the passion is the emotions (appetites) Anthropology ​ Our essence is our soul (a prisoner of our body) ​ The soul is the form (essence) of the body, the body is the matter (study of our ​ Body vs Soul Dualism: They are constricted by (accidental properties) of the soul essence and one another. At times the body will overwhelm ​ Soul and body are always found together (hylomorphism) ← means human the soul (ex: being very hungry). The soul when I harm my body, I harm my soul nature → what is the guides through virtue and the body guides ​ Using your body with its intended purpose → living by your telos definition of through desires and needs. ​ The Parable of the Scorpion and the Frog: you can never expect a human) someone to change their essence School The Academy (Aristotle didn’t go there) The Lyceum Other ​ Student of Socrates ​ Student of Plato ​ Allegory of the Cave: the analogy of the people ​ Aristotle’s 4 Theistic Proofs (like Aquinas’s 5 Proofs): who were chained in the stage and were only ○​ Teleological Argument (Argument from design): everything has a able to see shadows of people and objects. cause and purpose When one of them was finally freed, he couldn’t ​ Everything that has a design has a designer believe what he had been missing out on. He ​ Modern fine-tuning argument (The order in the universe tried to free his friends, but they resisted and is not random) told him he was stupid. This is symbolic of ​ Ex: if we take apart a watch and put it in a bag philosophers who finally understood truth, and and shake it, we won’t get a watch (Paley’s those who he is trying to teach. Argument) ​ Apology of Socrates: ​ Telos ← we are drawn towards it because we know that ○​ Socrates would die to not conform to there is something their beliefs (this would be like silencing ○​ First cause: there must be an initial cause his soul) and stand by his philosophy ​ Everything that happens has an explanation ​ He urges other to not be so ​ There cannot be infinite regress focused on material possessions ​ The cosmological reasoning came from this (Everything because they will not bring that begins to exist has a cause) happiness ​ God didn’t begin to exist because he exists ​ What you chose to believe in eternally determines your life and ​ There was never a movement that there was nothing happiness ○​ Necessary being: if something exists now → then it must exist ○​ “An unexamined life is not worth living”. eternally This is his whole philosophy ​ God must exist (exist out of necessity), as the unmoved ○​ His message: Find out what is good and mover (God’s essence is existence) do it ​ Humans exist contingently ​ The One and the Many: ○​ Motion: things tend towards a state of rest, therefore something ○​ If everyone were 100% different, must be causing this motion diversity wouldn’t ever be in question.  We are all united in some way (as one ​ We never see things going to higher states of energy you could say) spontaneously ○​ “Great thinking sees all as one, smalling ​ It is logical to believe that a creator was involved in breaks down into many” starting this motion ​ It is either ‘both’ or ‘nothing’ ○​ You have to look at the full picture and not just on one part ○​ Diversity is measured by a standard ​ Ex: this ruler is 3 feet long ← if you don't know what length is then that means nothing ○​ The 2 problems: ​ One of fact: must we take both multiplicity and the oneness of being, or can we simply dismiss one as an illusion ​ One of explanation: if we take both aspects seriously, how can they fit together without contradiction ○​ Unless your many parts are unified, you are not “you” Other Philosophers Philosopher Branch School Main Beliefs Protagoras Sophism N/A ​ Charged high fees ​ High degree of skepticism → no one has the truth/answers to the big questions, so answer the smaller  and practical questions instead ​ Can’t find meaning, so encourage the pursuit of comfort ​ If the question cannot be answered, let’s just get rid of the asker ○​ How to influence people, get power and popularity, get money? ​ Believed in relativism over objectivism Protagoras: Homo Mensoras - Man is the measure of all things ​ Denies the existence of subjective reality ​ Argues that “you can’t drink of what is false because this is your reality and your truth” → No such thing as objective truth ○​ Objection: But is there is no objective truth, you are thinking about something false ​ “If every opinion is true, so is the opinion that not every opinion is true” ​ Can’t account for science and objective truths Diogenes Cynicism N/A Everyone has self-motivated interests ​ He is a radical aesthetic because he doesn’t care about societal norms (he thinks that everyone is doing things to meet appearances) ​ Believe the only good is in virtues ​ Against political patronage (he doesn’t think that anyone needs to be spoken to any more diplomatically than anyone else just because of their power) Pyrrho Skepticism N/A Skeptical of Everything ​ It is impossible to have any sort of certainty (like Descarte) → he thinks that he should question truth because everyone has different viewpoints ​ Getting rid of desires leads to the greatest good (like Epicureans) ​ Skeptics believe that everyone is right Epicurus Epicureanism The Garden Greatest good is avoiding pain via temperance regarding desires ​ If life is accidental, then it is meaningless ​ Disagrees with hedonism (he believes in temperance and modesty) → This helps you avoid pain (greatest pain is death) ​ Epicureans don’t believe there is a reason to do something good Zeno of Stoicism School of Believes in the choice to control your emotions Citium Stoics ​ Believe in absolute (objective truth) and fate ​ Believed that there is nothing higher than the realm of reason and that nature is intelligible (only able to understand through our intellect, not our senses) ​ Emotions and reactions are choices (just go through challenges, don’t complain) ​ Despair = suffering - meaning Medieval Philosophers Philosopher Metaphysics Epistemology Ethics Augustine Faith Precedes Knowledge: Theory of Illumination: Man is body and soul: ​ God = Knowledge ​ Implies that God is the ​ The body is a ​ You cannot deny God without first affirming God mind to the soul, what the part of human ○​ If I have knowledge → there is God seen is the eye nature and is ○​ You need knowledge to deny God ​ There is a never a good (because ○​ Everyone has the one → knowledge → God (you need God to situation where there is it is created by deny God) 100% darkness (if you are God) the eyes won’t work) ​ Souls are the Everything leads to God: ​ This is the same as the true centre ​ God is joy and truth mind (we need knowledge (prioritizes the ​ Unity is found when your desire good and God to work) bodily needs ​ We are broken and unnaturally divided ​ We are intellectual over the ​ We understand the good and desire it illuminated by the mind virtues) ​ We use our intellectual processes to rationalize our divided mindset ​ Augustine (when we desire complete things) doesn’t ​ Sin is a disordered love believe in ​ We do bad things and then justify it (Augustine was able to realize it) hylomorphism ​ Augustine was obsessed with the pear tree incident because he wants ​ The soul is to be able to see things from other people’s perspectives influenced by ​ God is the only thing which is not a means to an end (God is the end) the senses ​ Only two things that cannot be corrupted are God and nothingness ​ Our attention  Ambrose: He teaches Aristotle about Plotinus’s Emanation Theory, which is to our senses what helps Augustine to begin his journey as a Christian and priest. allows us to ascend our senses to our mind (divine mind) Plotinus Cosmology: Emanation Theory N/A N/A ​ One (absolute reality) → Divine Mind → World Soul → Universe → Matter → Non-Being ​ Divine mind → nous (what Plotinus calls it): neotic reality ○​ This is where Plato’s ideal world is ○​ Link to the human mind (our mind are in the divine mind) ○​ Logos is found here ​ World Soul (aka psyche → Greek word for the soul): psychic reality ○​ Our soul connect us to the divine mind (for Plotinus) ○​ We can reason with our psyche because we can reason with God's ideas (found in the divine world) ​ Universe (physical world): physical reality ○​ This is where we have the laws of nature ○​ Where Plotinus find emotions ○​ This is where our sensory soul is ​ Matter (anything outside the physical world) ​ Non-being (nothingness) → furthest removed from the one ​ Everything in Emanation theory is found in us ​ We have all of these 6 things (we are a microcosm) ○​ We have to lose our body and transcend our reality ○​ We want to go up (transcend), not go down (emanation) → Emanation Theory ○​ In doing so we are leaving the mundane and going to the pleasant and then to the perfect Anselm Ontological Argument: Theistic Proof N/A N/A ​ Premise 1: God is the greatest conceivable being ​ Premise 2: The greatest conceivable being exists ​ Conclusion: God exists ​ Related to the theory, we have to affirm God in order to deny God ​ Doubt is based on knowledge, therefore doubt must exist (it exists in the mind) ○​ If there is knowledge outside my mind (that is true), there must be minds outside my mind that must be truth ← God is a piece of knowledge ​ Anyone who can think proves that this argument is true Aquinas Rooted in Aristotle’s metaphysics of actuality and potentiality Grace (Revelation, faith, N/A ​ God is goodness metaphysics) ​ He cannot change ---------- (Mixed Articles) ​ He is necessary and eternal because we are contingent Nature (Perception, empiricism, ​ Essence is existence science) Aquinas’s 5 Proofs: ​ Reason used to ​ Argument of Entropy: things tend towards rest, disorder, or lower understand nature energy levels ​ Aquinas helped introduce ○​ There must be a first mover because the chain of movement the mixed article level to cannot be infinitely long. show the unclear divide ○​ In order to change things from their potentiality state to their between faith and science actuality state, there must be an unmoved mover (God) ​ Mixed articles are truths ​ Argument of Causation: For every affect, there must be a cause (and a that are found between sufficient reason to explain why that happens) grace and nature ○​ Like dominos, there has to be beginning (infinite regression is ​ Ex: Jesus is both 100% impossible) divine and human ​ There must be a first cause behind it (God)  ○​ This relates to the Cosmological Argument: P1 - Everything that begins to exist has a cause. P2 - The universe has begun to exist. C - The universe has a cause ​ Argument of Necessary Being: if something exists now it must have eternally existed (out of necessity) ○​ Everything is created by a necessary being ○​ Everything exists contingently, meaning that at some point in time, it must have not existed. Therefore, the whole world must have not existed at some point in time, and must have come into existence by a necessary being, specifically God. ​ Argument from Gradation: the ability to say one thing is better than another implies that there is something that is perfect ○​ We must have a standard of truth and justice to determine the degrees of perfection in everything (for Aquinas, this is God) ​ Argument from Design: There has to be design and the universe has to be intentional because there is this extremely small probability that his could happen (yet it did) → Fine tuning argument ○​ We see design around us all the time (watch example) ○​ Ex: Humans, DNA, etc → created purposefully and intentionally ○​ Everything has a purpose or aim, which must be motivated by something. Something or someone must be directing this, and that person must God. Descartes Desecrate believes in Reason without faith → rationalism (like Plato) Adds onto Anslem’s Ontological N/A ​ Wants to find certainty by doubting everything Argument because as a rationalist: Descartes's Meditations (his thinking): Descartes doubts everything ​ Descartes knows that ​ The only thing that you can’t doubt is that you are doubting there is a perfect being ○​ Doubt → thinking → must exist → “I think, therefore I am” (you have a notion of a ​ 1st Mediation: Doubt everything perfect being) → God  ​ 2nd Mediation: Doubting means that I must exist ​ Conceiving of an idea ○​ If you are doubting, you are thinking, which means you must precedes our sense exist perception ​ 3rd Meditation: I doubt as a thinking person ○​ However, what if ○​ In this he discovers that he is not the only one here (everyone he learned that around him could be deception) → has to do with the fact that from someone you can conceive of a perfect being (New natures cannot be else, who learn it invented) from someone ​ Descartes can doubt that everything exist, but still believe that he is not else, etc alone ○​ You need an ○​ He knows that he is not alone because he knows that there is eternal necessary knowledge outside his own mind being with those ○​ If there is knowledge outside my mind (that is true), there must ideas (proof that be minds outside my mind that must be truth ← God is a price God exists) of knowledge Aristotle’s Logic: 3 Acts of the Mind: ​ Conceding: we can understanding a concept ​ Judging: determining if an act is true or false (evaluating) ​ Reasoning: induction or deduction (to use either of these to reason) ○​ Inductive reasoning: particular → general reasoning (reasoning done by scientists) ​ Ex: sees bunnies hopping (particular) → therefore bunnies hop (general) ○​ Deductive reasoning: general → specific ​ Ex: all men are mortal (general) → therefore Socrates is mortal (specific) ​ There is induction within deduction (it depends on induction) ← but not all mortals are men Syllogisms: an argument → involves deduction from 2 given premises  ​ Categorical Syllogisms: made up of categorical propositions → either true or false ○​ Has one subject and predicate (separated by a copula → ex: is or are) ​ Conditional Syllogism: follows the form: if P, then Q ​ Major, Minor, Middle Terms → 3 terms of a syllogism ○​ Major: predicate of the conclusion ○​ Minor: subject of the conclusion ○​ Middle: never in the conclusion (but always each both of the premises) ​ Can be added in the middle of the conclusion but it is not necessary ○​ For example: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore Socrates is mortal. ○​ The premise which has the major term has the major premise (same for minor) Categorical Syllogisms: ​ Subject: about which something is said ○​ Ex: All giraffes are animals, giraffes is the subject (for something is being said about giraffes) ​ Predicate: that which is said about something ○​ Ex: All giraffes are animals, they are animals is the predicate ​ Copula: joins or separates the subject and the predicate ○​ Ex: All wheels are not animals, are not is the copula ​ Standard Propositional Codes: only 4 possible forms of categorical position ○​ Affirmative vs Negative statements (2 for each) and Universal vs Particular (2 for each) (A, I, E, O statements) ○​ Ex: All pigs are smelly (A) OR Some pigs are smelly (I) OR No pigs are smelly (E) OR Some pigs are not smelly (O) ○​ A: Universal affirmative ○​ I: Particular affirmative ○​ E: Universal negative ○​ O: Particular negative Distribution: ​ Distributed: term covers 100% of all things referred to by the term ○​ Ex: All men (100%) are mortal  ​ Undistributed: term which covers anything less than 100% of all things referred to by the term ○​ Ex: Some men (