Philosophy Exam Review PDF

PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW Philosophy ​ Definition of Philosophy -​ Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language, often through critical, systematic approaches and reasoned argumentation. ​ Branches...

PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW Philosophy ​ Definition of Philosophy -​ Philosophy is the study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language, often through critical, systematic approaches and reasoned argumentation. ​ Branches of Philosophy and their focus -​ Metaphysics – Nature of reality and existence. -​ Epistemology – Nature and scope of knowledge. -​ Ethics – Morality and right conduct. -​ Logic – Principles of reasoning and argument. -​ Aesthetics – Nature of beauty and art. -​ Political Philosophy – Justice, governance, and rights. Logic ​ What is logic? -​ Logic is the systematic study of valid reasoning, focusing on the structure and principles that distinguish good arguments from bad ones. ​ What is the structure of a logical argument? -​ Premises: Statements providing evidence. -​ Conclusion: Statement supported by premises. ​ Explain how Occam’s Razor works -​ A principle favoring the simplest explanation that accounts for all facts. "Entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity." ​ Types of reasoning: Inductive and Deductive. Provide examples of each. -​ Inductive: Generalization based on observations (e.g., "All observed swans are white; therefore, all swans might be white.") -​ Deductive: Conclusion necessarily follows from premises (e.g., "All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal.") ​ What is Formal Logic? -​ Deals with symbolic and mathematical representations of arguments, focusing on validity.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ What is a proposition? How can you identify one? -​ A declarative statement that is either true or false. E.g., "The sky is blue." ​ How can you tell if an argument is valid or invalid? -​ Valid arguments have correct logical form; invalid ones do not. ​ How can you tell if an argument is sound or unsound? -​ Sound arguments are valid with true premises; unsound arguments are not. ​ What is the Law of Identity? -​ A=A. ​ What is the Law of Noncontradiction? -​ A and A cannot both be true. ​ What is the Law of the Excluded Middle? -​ A statement is either true or false. ​ Explain the Principle of Sufficient Reason -​ Everything must have a cause or explanation. Logical Fallacies ​ What is a fallacy? -​ A fallacy is a flaw in reasoning that undermines the logical validity of an argument. ​ What are Informal fallacies? Where do we encounter them? How can we identify them? -​ Errors in reasoning found in everyday arguments (e.g., ad hominem, straw man). They are often encountered in debates, media, and casual discussions. Pre-Socratics & Sophists ​ Who were they?  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW -​ Pre-Socratics: - The Pre-Socratics were early Greek philosophers who lived before or contemporaneously with Socrates (470–399 BCE). They originated in various Greek city-states, particularly in Ionia, Magna Graecia (southern Italy), and the Aegean islands. - Sophists: The Sophists were professional educators and rhetoricians in ancient Greece, particularly active during the 5th century BCE. They traveled from city to city, teaching young men the skills needed for success in public life, especially in democratic Athens. ​ What were their beliefs? What was their main focus? -​ PRE-SOCRATICS: They sought to explain the natural world and the cosmos through reason and observation, rather than relying on mythological or divine explanations. They debated the nature of reality, focusing on change, permanence, and the unity or plurality of being. Main focus: Cosmology: Understanding the universe’s origin and structure. Metaphysics: Exploring the fundamental nature of reality and existence. Epistemology: Investigating the sources and limits of knowledge. -​ SOPHISTS: Many Sophists embraced relativism, the idea that truth and morality depend on individual or cultural perspectives. They were skeptical of universal truths, emphasizing the subjective nature of human experience. Main focus: -​ Human affairs, including ethics, law, politics, and education. -​ The practical use of language and argumentation for success in civic life. ​ Why were they revolutionary for their time? -​ PRE-SOCRATICS: The Pre-Socratics replaced mythological narratives with rational inquiry, laying the foundation for natural science. They introduced systematic approaches to understanding the world, emphasizing observation and logical reasoning. They opened the door to questioning traditional beliefs about gods and the cosmos. -​ SOPHISTS: The Sophists democratized education, making advanced learning accessible to those who could pay. They challenged traditional norms, questioning absolute truths and societal conventions. They emphasized the power of language to shape reality and human interaction.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ What impact did they have? -​ PRE-SOCRATICS: The Sophists influenced the development of rhetoric, a core element of Western education for centuries. Their ideas on relativism and skepticism contributed to philosophical debates on truth and morality. Their focus on human affairs and society laid the groundwork for ethical and political philosophy. -​ SOPHISTS: They pioneered fields like physics, astronomy, and metaphysics, influencing later philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Their methods and ideas shaped the intellectual tradition of the Western world. ​ What did they teach? -​ PRE-SOCRATICS: Natural laws, the origin of the universe, the nature of matter, change, and reality. -​ SOPHISTS: Rhetoric, persuasion, relativism, ethics, social constructs, and practical success. ​ Why did Socrates strongly dislike the Sophists? -​ Socrates criticized the Sophists because he saw them as prioritizing rhetoric over truth, profit over virtue, and relativism over universal moral standards. While the Sophists sought practical success, Socrates believed in the transformative power of philosophy to improve the soul and society. His opposition to the Sophists highlighted a deeper clash between two views of philosophy: one as a tool for personal advantage and the other as a pursuit of truth and moral goodness. Socrates ​ What is the purpose of life? -​ For Socrates, the purpose of life is self-improvement and moral excellence through the pursuit of truth and virtue. He emphasized caring for the soul, as it defines one’s being, and believed happiness comes from living a good and virtuous life, prioritizing wisdom over material wealth or pleasures. ​ What did he mean by "an unexamined life is not worth living?" -​ Socrates emphasized self-reflection and critical thinking, believing that an unexamined life lacks true meaning. He argued that examining one’s  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW values and actions leads to self-knowledge, purpose, and virtue, which are essential for a good and meaningful life. Without self-examination, life becomes passive and devoid of moral growth. ​ Explain Socrates' view on truth, knowledge and virtue -​ For Socrates, truth was universal and discoverable through reason and dialogue. He valued intellectual humility, famously stating, "I know that I know nothing," and believed true knowledge begins with recognizing ignorance. Socrates equated virtue with knowledge, asserting that understanding what is good leads to doing good, as wrongdoing stems from ignorance. ​ What was the nature of evil for Socrates? -​ Socrates believed that evil arises from ignorance rather than malice. According to him: ➔​ People commit harmful acts because they do not truly understand the consequences or the moral implications of their actions. ➔​ Knowledge of what is good would naturally lead people to choose virtuous behavior. ➔​ Thus, education and self-awareness are essential to overcoming evil and promoting moral excellence. ​ What is the Socratic method? Why does Socrates think it is a crucial technique in understanding the truth and acquiring knowledge? -​ The Socratic Method is a form of inquiry where Socrates used questioning to expose contradictions in beliefs and guide others to clearer conclusions. Through open-ended questions, it fosters critical thinking, self-reflection, and recognition of ignorance, encouraging deeper understanding. By challenging assumptions and promoting intellectual humility, it leads to genuine wisdom and the discovery of universal truths, forming the foundation of philosophical inquiry. -​  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ What is Socrates' view of morality and right behaviour? -​ For Socrates, morality is based on rational understanding and universal truths, not subjective or cultural standards. Acting morally means pursuing the good and caring for the soul. He argued that virtue alone brings happiness, external factors like wealth are irrelevant, and immorality harms the soul. Socrates held that one must never commit injustice, even in response to it, as seen in his refusal to escape his unjust trial sentence. His philosophy highlights that a life of reason, virtue, and self-reflection benefits both individuals and society. Plato ​ Explain the two worlds according to Plato: world of senses vs. world of ideas (forms) -​ Plato believed in the existence of two distinct realms: World of Senses (Physical World) ​ The world we perceive through our senses. ​ It is imperfect, changing, and fleeting. ​ Objects in this world are mere shadows or imitations of their true, ideal forms. World of Ideas (Forms) ​ The eternal, unchanging, and perfect realm of abstract concepts or "Forms." ​ Forms are the ultimate reality and the source of all knowledge and existence. ​ Examples: Beauty, Justice, and Equality exist as perfect Forms that the physical world can only imperfectly replicate. -​ In Plato’s view, the World of Forms is more real and important than the World of Senses because it represents true knowledge, not mere opinion. ​ Explain Plato's Allegory of the Cave  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW -​ Plato’s Allegory of the Cave (from The Republic) illustrates the difference between ignorance and enlightenment. The Allegory: ​ The Cave: Represents the physical world and ignorance. Prisoners are chained in a cave, facing a wall, only able to see shadows cast by objects behind them. ​ The Shadows: Represent perceptions based on the senses, which are mere illusions of reality. ​ The Escape: A prisoner escapes the cave, symbolizing the philosopher’s journey toward enlightenment and knowledge of the World of Forms. ​ The Sun: Represents the ultimate truth and the Form of the Good, which illuminates all understanding. ​ Return to the Cave: The enlightened prisoner returns to help others but is often ridiculed or rejected by those still trapped in ignorance. ​ How can the Allegory of the Cave be applied to modern society? -​ Mass Media and Propaganda: Shadows can represent misinformation or biased media that distort reality. People who rely solely on superficial sources remain in the "cave." -​ Education and Critical Thinking: True education is the process of leaving the cave, questioning assumptions, and seeking deeper truths. -​ Resistance to Change: Those who challenge societal norms or reveal uncomfortable truths are often met with skepticism or hostility, like the freed prisoner. ​ How does a person acquire knowledge? -​ Through Reason and Reflection: Plato believed sensory experience only provides opinions, not true knowledge. Real knowledge comes through the use of reason to grasp the eternal Forms. -​ Dialectic Method: Dialogue and questioning help uncover assumptions and lead to the truth. -​ Recollection (Anamnesis): Plato held that the soul preexists in the World of Forms and already knows the Forms. Learning is simply "recollecting" this innate knowledge.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Apply Plato's concept of the divided line to his theory of knowledge. -​ Plato's Divided Line is a metaphor for levels of reality and knowledge: Four Levels: 1.​ Imagining (Eikasia): Lowest level, dealing with shadows and reflections (illusions). 2.​ Belief (Pistis): Sensory experience of physical objects (opinions). 3.​ Thinking (Dianoia): Understanding through reasoning, like mathematics. 4.​ Knowledge (Noesis): Highest level, direct intellectual apprehension of the Forms. -​ The lower two levels correspond to the World of Senses, while the upper levels correspond to the World of Forms. ​ Explain his concept of the soul and the parts of the soul -​ Plato viewed the soul as immortal and consisting of three distinct parts: The Tripartite Soul: 1.​ Rational (Logos): Governs reason and wisdom; seeks truth and knowledge. 2.​ Spirited (Thumos): Governs courage, willpower, and honor. 3.​ Appetitive (Epithumia): Governs desires and instincts for physical pleasures. -​ Plato believed a just soul is one where the rational part rules, aided by the spirited part, while the appetitive part is controlled. ​ What is the good life according to Plato? How does one achieve the good life? -​ The good life involves living in harmony with the World of Forms, especially the Form of the Good, which represents the ultimate purpose and source of all reality. How to Achieve It: ​ Cultivate reason and wisdom to understand the Forms. ​ Strive for moral excellence by aligning the soul’s parts in harmony.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Participate in a just society, where individuals fulfill their roles according to their natural abilities. ​ What is virtue ethics based on? -​ Plato’s virtue ethics is based on the idea that virtue is knowledge and that living a virtuous life aligns the soul with the ultimate good. Virtue is not just about action but also about cultivating one’s character and rational understanding. ​ Which virtues are important to Plato? -​ Plato emphasized four cardinal virtues essential for a just individual and society: 1.​ Wisdom: Proper use of reason and knowledge. 2.​ Courage: Willpower to act rightly, even in the face of fear. 3.​ Temperance (Moderation): Self-control and balance between desires. 4.​ Justice: Harmony in the soul and society, with each part fulfilling its proper role. -​ These virtues together create a harmonious and flourishing life. Aristotle ​ What are the differences between Aristotle and Plato? Aspect Plato Aristotle Reality Believed in two worlds: Believed reality is the the physical world physical world, but it (imperfect) and the can be understood World Of Forms through the study of (perfect, eternal). substances and their causes. Epistemology Knowledge comes Knowledge comes through reason and from sensory recollection of eternal experience and Forms. reasoning (empiricism). Forms Forms exist Forms exist within  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW independently of objects as their objects in the World of essence. Forms. Soul Dualistic: the soul is The soul is the "form" separate from the body of the body, and immortal. inseparable and tied to its function. Ethics Focused on the ideal Focused on practical (the Good). Happiness ethics. Happiness is is achieved by aligning achieved by living a with the World of virtuous life in Forms. accordance with reason. ​ What are the four causes and what do they help explain? Give examples of how to identify each cause. -​ Aristotle’s Four Causes explain why things exist or occur. ➔​ Material Cause: The physical substance something is made of. ◆​ Example: A statue’s material cause is marble or bronze. ➔​ Formal Cause: The shape, form, or essence of a thing. ◆​ Example: The statue’s formal cause is the design or figure it represents. ➔​ Efficient Cause: The agent or process that brings something into being. ◆​ Example: The sculptor who carves the statue. ➔​ Final Cause: The purpose or goal for which a thing exists (its "why"). ◆​ Example: The final cause of the statue might be to honor a god or a hero. ​ What is Substance? -​ Substance refers to what exists independently and serves as the fundamental unit of reality. -​ It combines matter (what something is made of) and form (its essence or nature). -​ Example: A tree is a substance, with wood (matter) and its structure and function as a tree (form).  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Explain "accidents" -​ Accidents are properties or attributes that do not define a substance’s essence and can change without altering its fundamental nature. -​ Example: A red apple’s redness is an accident; the apple remains an apple regardless of its color. ​ What is the difference between "matter" and "form" -​ Matter: The physical material that composes an object (e.g., clay for a pot). -​ Form: The structure, arrangement, or essence that makes matter what it is (e.g., the shape of the pot). ​ What is his theory of knowledge? -​ Knowledge begins with sensory experience (what we see, hear, touch, etc.). -​ Through reason and abstraction, the mind identifies patterns and universals, leading to understanding. -​ Knowledge moves from particulars (individual instances) to universals (general truths). ​ What is "potentiality" and "actuality"? -​ Potentiality: The capacity or possibility for something to become actual. -​ Actuality: The fulfillment or realization of potential. -​ Example: An acorn has the potentiality to become a tree, and when it grows into a tree, it achieves actuality. ​ How does Aristotle define happiness? What are the four levels of happiness? -​ Aristotle defined happiness (eudaimonia) as living a life of virtue in accordance with reason. It is not a fleeting emotion but a state of flourishing and fulfillment. The Four Levels of Happiness: 1.​ Pleasure: Basic enjoyment (e.g., food, comfort). 2.​ Success: Personal achievement and recognition. 3.​ Virtue: Living a morally excellent life.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW 4.​ Contemplation: The highest form of happiness, involving intellectual and philosophical pursuits. ​ Why is a virtuous friendship key in attaining happiness? -​ Virtuous friendships are based on mutual respect and shared values, not utility or pleasure. -​ They encourage moral growth, self-improvement, and living in accordance with virtue. -​ Such friendships are essential for achieving eudaimonia, as humans are social beings who thrive in meaningful relationships. ​ Explain the Doctrine of the Golden Mean. Explain the concepts of deficiency and excess in relation to the Doctrine of the Golden Mean. -​ The Golden Mean is Aristotle’s idea that virtue lies between two extremes: deficiency and excess. -​ Example: -​ Courage is a virtue. -​ Deficiency: Cowardice (too little courage). -​ Excess: Recklessness (too much courage). Deficiency and Excess ​ Deficiency represents a lack of the virtue. ​ Excess represents an overabundance of the virtue. ​ How does the Doctrine of the Golden Mean contribute to Aristotle's concept of morality and the good life? -​ Morality involves finding the right balance in actions and emotions. -​ The Golden Mean helps individuals develop good habits and cultivate character, leading to the good life. -​ A person who consistently acts according to the mean achieves harmony and fulfills their purpose, living in alignment with reason and virtue. Metaphysics ​ What is the central focus of Metaphysics  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW -​ Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, existence, and being. It addresses questions about: ​ What exists? (Ontology) ​ What is the nature of reality? ​ What is the relationship between mind and matter? ​ What are space, time, and causality? ​ Define "Idealism", "Materialism", "Monism", "Dualism" a. Idealism ​ Definition: The philosophical view that reality is fundamentally mental, spiritual, or immaterial. ​ Key Idea: The mind or consciousness is the primary substance, and the material world is either an illusion or dependent on the mind for its existence. ​ Example: George Berkeley’s theory that objects exist only when perceived ("to be is to be perceived"). b. Materialism ​ Definition: The belief that reality consists only of matter and physical substances. Everything, including thoughts and consciousness, can be explained in terms of material interactions. ​ Key Idea: Physical matter is the fundamental substance of the universe, and mental phenomena arise from physical processes (e.g., in the brain). ​ Example: Modern neuroscience explaining consciousness through brain activity. c. Monism ​ Definition: The belief that all of reality can be reduced to a single fundamental substance or principle. ​ Key Idea: There is one ultimate reality, whether it is material (materialistic monism) or immaterial (idealistic monism).  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Example: Spinoza’s idea that God and nature are one substance. d. Dualism ​ Definition: The view that reality consists of two distinct and independent substances: mind (immaterial) and body (material). ​ Key Idea: Mental and physical realms exist separately but can interact. ​ Example: René Descartes’ theory of mind-body dualism, where the mind is a non-physical entity, and the body is a physical machine. Christian Thinkers ​ Which Christian thinkers argued that logic and reason CAN work together? How do they make their argument? Their Arguments: ​ St. Augustine: Reason is a gift from God that helps humans understand divine truths. He believed that reason leads to faith by providing the intellectual foundation to accept God. ​ St. Thomas Aquinas: Reason is complementary to faith. Through natural reason, humans can understand truths about the natural world and some aspects of God. Faith completes reason by revealing divine truths inaccessible to reason alone. St. Augustine ​ Explain his Christianization of Plato -​ Augustine adopted Plato’s theory of Forms but adapted it to Christianity. ​ The Forms became ideas in the mind of God. ​ The World of Forms is synonymous with God’s eternal and unchanging nature. -​ Augustine saw the soul's ascent to God as analogous to Plato’s journey from the World of Senses to the World of Forms. ​ What is his proof for God -​ Augustine’s proof for God is based on the existence of eternal truths:  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Truths like mathematics and moral principles are eternal and unchanging. ​ Eternal truths must exist in an eternal and unchanging mind, which Augustine identifies as God. ​ Causes of Evil according to Augustine? -​ Evil is not a substance or created entity but a privation (absence) of good. -​ Evil arises when free beings (humans or angels) turn away from God, choosing lesser goods over the ultimate Good. ​ What is "Truth" and "Certainty"? -​ Truth: For Augustine, truth is eternal and resides in God. Human reason can apprehend truth through divine illumination. -​ Certainty: Absolute certainty comes from God’s eternal nature, as our knowledge is illuminated by Him. ​ What is "Faith" and "Reason"? How can they work together? -​ Faith: The starting point for understanding divine truths. -​ Reason: Clarifies and deepens one’s faith. -​ Faith and reason are harmonious because reason provides a rational foundation for believing in divine truths. ​ What is "divine illumination"? -​ The idea that humans can understand eternal truths because God illuminates their minds. -​ Just as the sun enables sight in the physical world, God enables intellectual and spiritual understanding. St. Thomas Aquinas ​ What is the Cosmological Argument? What are the 5 Proofs for the Existence of God? Cosmological Argument -​ The Cosmological Argument is a proof for God’s existence based on the principle that everything has a cause, and this leads to the necessity of a First Cause, which is God. The Five Proofs for the Existence of God  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW 1.​ The Argument from Motion: ○​ Everything in motion is moved by something else. There must be an unmoved mover (God). 2.​ The Argument from Causation: ○​ Every effect has a cause. There must be a first uncaused cause (God). 3.​ The Argument from Contingency: ○​ Contingent beings (things that exist but don’t have to) require a necessary being (God) for their existence. 4.​ The Argument from Degrees: ○​ Degrees of perfection in qualities (goodness, beauty) imply the existence of an ultimate source of perfection (God). 5.​ The Argument from Design: ○​ The order and purpose in the universe suggest a designer (God). ​ Explain his Christianization of Aristotle -​ Aquinas adopted Aristotle’s concepts of substance, form, matter, potentiality, and actuality, applying them to theology. ​ Example: The essence of God is pure actuality, with no potentiality. -​ Aquinas used Aristotle’s idea of the final cause to argue that all things have a purpose directed by God. ​ What are the causes of evil according to Aquinas? -​ Evil, like Augustine, is not a substance but a privation of good. -​ Evil occurs when a created being fails to fulfill its purpose or lacks something it should have by nature. ​ What is the basis of his moral philosophy? -​ Morality is rooted in natural law, which reflects God’s eternal law. -​ Human beings discern right and wrong through reason and conscience, which are directed toward the ultimate good (God). ​ How does he explain "Faith" and "Reason"? How can they work together? -​ Faith: Provides divine truths that exceed human reason (e.g., the Trinity). -​ Reason: Enables humans to understand natural truths (e.g., God’s existence).  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW -​ Faith and reason are complementary; reason leads to faith, and faith elevates reason. Rationalism and Empiricism ​ Explain "rationalism" -​ Definition: Rationalism is the philosophical belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge and that certain truths can be known independently of sensory experience. -​ Key Ideas: ​ Truths about the world can be discovered through intellectual reasoning. ​ Emphasizes the existence of innate ideas or concepts that are present in the mind at birth. ​ Knowledge can be acquired a priori (prior to experience). Examples: ​ Mathematical truths (e.g., 2+2=4) are considered self-evident through reasoning. ​ René Descartes’ "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) is a rationalist argument. ​ Explain "empiricism" -​ Definition: Empiricism is the philosophical belief that all knowledge comes from sensory experience and observation. -​ Key Ideas: ​ Human minds start as a "blank slate" (tabula rasa), and experience imprints knowledge. ​ Emphasizes the importance of a posteriori knowledge (knowledge gained after experience). ​ Rejects the notion of innate ideas. -​ Examples: ​ Scientific discoveries, such as the laws of motion, are derived through observation and experimentation. ​ John Locke and David Hume are notable empiricist philosophers. ​ What is 'a priori knowledge'?  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW -​ Definition: Knowledge that is independent of sensory experience; it is known prior to or without relying on experience. -​ Characteristics: ​ Logical, universal, and necessary truths. ​ Often associated with rationalist thought. Examples: ​ "All bachelors are unmarried men" (a definition-based truth). ​ Mathematical truths, such as "a triangle has three sides." ​ What is 'a posteriori knowledge'? -​ Definition: Knowledge that is derived from sensory experience or empirical observation; it is known after experience. -​ Characteristics: -​ Relies on evidence from the physical world. -​ Often associated with empiricist thought. -​ Examples: -​ "The sky is blue" (observed through sensory perception). -​ "Water boils at 100°C under standard pressure" (discovered through experimentation). Descartes (rationalist) ​ Why does Descartes develop his method of doubt and certainty? What is he trying to do? -​ Purpose: Descartes develops his method of doubt to establish a foundation of certainty for knowledge. He aims to: 1.​ Overcome skepticism by identifying indubitable truths. 2.​ Build a secure foundation for the sciences and philosophy. 3.​ Eliminate all beliefs that could potentially be false or uncertain. Goal: To discover a truth that is so self-evident that it cannot be doubted, even under the most extreme skepticism. ​ Method of Doubt: how does this explain his existence? -​ Descartes systematically doubts everything he can:  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW 1.​ Sense Experience: Senses can deceive (e.g., optical illusions), so sensory knowledge is unreliable. 2.​ Dream Argument: There is no definitive way to distinguish dreams from reality. 3.​ Evil Demon Hypothesis: A powerful deceiver might manipulate his perceptions and thoughts, making everything he believes false. Cogito, Ergo Sum ("I think, therefore I am"): ​ In the act of doubting, Descartes realizes that doubt requires a thinker. ​ Even if an evil demon deceives him, the very act of thinking confirms his existence as a thinking being. ​ This is the first indubitable truth: "I exist." ​ How does he apply this method to explain the existence of God? -​ Descartes uses two primary arguments to establish the existence of God: a. The Trademark Argument ​ Premise: Humans have an innate idea of a perfect, infinite being (God). ​ Reasoning: 1.​ The idea of God must have a cause. 2.​ A finite, imperfect being (humans) cannot create the idea of an infinite, perfect being. 3.​ Therefore, the cause of this idea must be God Himself. ​ Conclusion: God exists as the source of the idea of perfection in the human mind. b. The Ontological Argument ​ Premise: The concept of God entails His existence. ​ Reasoning: 1.​ God is defined as a perfect being. 2.​ Existence is a necessary attribute of perfection. 3.​ Therefore, God must exist; otherwise, He would not be perfect. ​ Is it successful? -​ Strengths:  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Descartes’ arguments show the interconnectedness of reason and faith, offering a rational basis for belief in God. ​ The Trademark Argument appeals to the innate idea of perfection, which aligns with rationalist principles. ​ The Ontological Argument provides a logical proof, building on earlier ideas from St. Anselm. Criticisms: 1.​ Trademark Argument: Critics argue that the idea of perfection could be a construct of the human mind, not necessarily caused by God. 2.​ Ontological Argument: Philosophers like Immanuel Kant argue that existence is not a predicate (i.e., existence does not add to the definition of a being). 3.​ Circular Reasoning: Descartes’ reliance on God’s existence to validate clear and distinct ideas, while using those ideas to prove God, is seen as circular reasoning (the Cartesian Circle). Locke (empiricist) ​ Locke's epistemology: If the mind is a blank slate "tabula rasa" where do ideas come from? -​ Locke argues that the mind starts as a blank slate (tabula rasa), meaning humans are not born with innate ideas. -​ Ideas come exclusively from experience, which is divided into two sources: 1.​ Sensation: External sensory experiences of the physical world (e.g., color, texture). 2.​ Reflection: Internal experiences of the mind’s operations, such as thinking, reasoning, remembering, and willing. ​ Explain primary and secondary qualities and how they relate to material objects Primary Qualities ​ Definition: Qualities that are inherent in material objects and exist independently of perception.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Characteristics: Objective, measurable, and produce consistent perceptions in everyone. ​ Examples: Solidity, shape, motion, number, extension. ​ Relation to Objects: Primary qualities exist whether or not they are being perceived. Secondary Qualities ​ Definition: Qualities that do not exist in the object itself but are produced in the mind by the interaction of primary qualities and the senses. ​ Characteristics: Subjective and dependent on perception. ​ Examples: Color, taste, sound, smell, heat. ​ Relation to Objects: Secondary qualities depend on the perceiver’s sensory apparatus. Example: ​ A lemon’s primary qualities include its shape and solidity, while its secondary qualities include its yellow color and sour taste. The secondary qualities exist only when someone perceives the lemon. ​ What does he mean by "sensation" and "reflection"? -​ Sensation: The process by which external stimuli from the physical world are detected through the senses and introduced into the mind. ​ Example: Seeing a tree or feeling the heat of the sun. Reflection: The process of observing the internal workings of the mind, such as thinking, doubting, or reasoning. ​ Example: Reflecting on the fact that you are thinking about a tree or remembering its image. ​ What is the difference between simple and complex ideas? Simple Ideas ​ Definition: The most basic building blocks of thought, derived directly from sensation or reflection.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Characteristics: ○​ Indivisible. ○​ Passively received by the mind. ​ Examples: The color blue, the sensation of heat, the feeling of anger. Complex Ideas ​ Definition: Ideas formed by combining simple ideas through mental operations (e.g., comparison, abstraction). ​ Characteristics: ○​ Actively constructed by the mind. ○​ Can represent more abstract or complex concepts. ​ Examples: ○​ A "unicorn" (combining ideas of a horse and a horn). ○​ The concept of "justice" (an abstract complex idea). ​ Explain how Locke says we gain knowledge. Step 1: Ideas from Experience ​ All knowledge begins with ideas, which arise from sensation and reflection. ​ The mind passively receives simple ideas through experience. Step 2: Formation of Complex Ideas ​ The mind processes simple ideas by comparing, combining, and abstracting them to form complex ideas. Step 3: Knowledge as the Agreement of Ideas ​ Locke defines knowledge as the perception of the agreement or disagreement between ideas: 1.​ Intuitive Knowledge: Immediate and self-evident (e.g., "a circle is not a square"). 2.​ Demonstrative Knowledge: Requires reasoning to connect ideas (e.g., mathematical proofs). 3.​ Sensitive Knowledge: Derived from sensory experience and confirms the existence of external objects.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW Limits of Knowledge ​ Locke emphasizes the limits of human understanding, arguing that while we can know many things, some truths (e.g., the ultimate nature of substances) are beyond our comprehension. Kant ​ Explain "transcendental idealism". How is it connected to rationalism and empiricism. -​ Transcendental Idealism is Kant's theory that human experience is shaped by both the mind’s inherent structures (which are active) and the external world (which is passive). According to Kant, we can never know the "things-in-themselves" (the noumenal world), but only the world as it appears to us, structured by our cognitive faculties. -​ Connection to Rationalism: Kant agrees with rationalists that the mind has innate structures (categories of thought like space, time, causality) that actively shape our experience of the world. These structures make knowledge possible but are not derived from sensory experience. -​ Connection to Empiricism: Kant also acknowledges that empiricists are correct that knowledge begins with sensory experience. Sensory data provides raw material that the mind organizes into coherent knowledge using the a priori categories. ​ Explain the two worlds: phenomenal and noumenal -​ Phenomenal World: This is the world as it appears to us, shaped by the mind’s structures and categories (e.g., time, space, causality). ​ We can only know and experience the phenomenal world because our minds impose certain categories on sensory data. ​ Example: We perceive an object as existing in space and time, but those concepts are imposed by our minds. -​ Noumenal World: This is the world as it is in itself, independent of human perception and cognition. ​ Kant argues that we can never have direct access to the noumenal world because our experience is always mediated by the mind’s categories. ​ Example: The “thing-in-itself” might exist, but we can never know it directly.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Explain the 2 elements of our experience of the world: Sensibility and Understanding. -​ Sensibility: The ability of the mind to receive raw sensory data (e.g., sight, touch, sound) from the external world. ​ Sensibility provides the material for experience. ​ Kant suggests that time and space are forms of sensibility — they are the lenses through which we perceive the world. -​ Understanding: The faculty of the mind that organizes and processes the sensory data provided by sensibility using innate concepts or categories (e.g., causality, unity, necessity). ​ Understanding is what makes sense of raw sensory data, turning it into structured knowledge. ​ It’s the active role of the mind that organizes experiences into coherent thoughts. ​ How does Kant explain "perception" -​ Perception is the result of the interaction between sensibility and understanding. ​ Sensibility provides the raw sensory data (e.g., light hitting the retina), but the understanding actively organizes this data using the a priori categories (e.g., placing it in the context of time, space, and causality). ​ Thus, perception is not simply a passive reception of data, but an active process where the mind shapes the way we experience the world. Example: We perceive a tree not just as an unordered collection of sensory data but as a coherent object in space and time, with causal relationships (it grows, has branches, etc.). ​ Why does Kant argue that everyone's reality is different? -​ Kant does not claim that everyone’s experience of the world is radically different. Instead, he argues that while all humans experience the world through the same fundamental structures (space, time, causality), the content of each person's experience is shaped by their unique sensory inputs. -​ Why Reality is "Different":  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ The noumenal world (the world as it is in itself) is inaccessible to us, so we can never have an objective understanding of it. ​ Our experience of the phenomenal world is shaped by both universal mental structures and subjective sensory inputs. -​ This implies that different people may have different experiences due to their individual sensory inputs, but the structure of these experiences remains the same for all humans. ​ What is the categorical imperative? How does it contribute to good moral decision-making? -​ The Categorical Imperative is Kant’s central ethical principle, a command that applies universally and unconditionally. It is a way of determining whether an action is morally permissible. -​ Formulation: 1.​ Universal Law Formulation: Act only according to that maxim (rule) which you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law. ​ This means that we should act in ways that could be universally applied, not just in personal or particular circumstances. ​ Example: If it is wrong for one person to lie, it should be wrong for everyone to lie. 2.​ Humanity Formulation: Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means. ​ This emphasizes respecting the dignity of each individual and treating them as an end in themselves, not as tools for achieving your own purposes. ​ Example: Using someone solely for your personal gain (e.g., exploiting someone for money) is morally wrong because it treats them merely as a means, not as an end in themselves. Contributions to Moral Decision-Making: ​ The categorical imperative offers a clear and rational principle for determining moral actions. ​ It emphasizes universalizability (the idea that moral actions should be applicable to everyone) and respect for persons (treating people as ends, not means).  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Kant's morality is based on duty and rationality, guiding individuals to make decisions that respect human dignity and promote universal moral laws. Utilitarianism ​ What is the main goal of Utilitarianism? -​ Goal: The main goal of utilitarianism is to maximize happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people. It is a form of consequentialism, meaning that the morality of an action is determined solely by its outcomes or consequences. -​ Principle: The Greatest Happiness Principle (or Principle of Utility) states that an action is right if it promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, and wrong if it produces the opposite. ​ Happiness is often understood as pleasure or the absence of pain, while well-being may also encompass overall life satisfaction or flourishing. ​ What is the difference between Act and Rule Utilitarianism? Act Utilitarianism ​ Definition: Act utilitarianism assesses each individual action based on the amount of happiness or pleasure it produces. ​ Focus: The consequences of a particular action in a specific situation. ​ Principle: In any given situation, you should choose the action that maximizes happiness or minimizes suffering, without regard for general rules or patterns. ​ Example: If lying in a particular situation will result in more overall happiness (e.g., protecting someone from harm), then lying would be the morally right choice. Rule Utilitarianism ​ Definition: Rule utilitarianism suggests that we should follow rules that, in general, tend to lead to the greatest happiness when consistently applied. ​ Focus: The long-term consequences of following rules rather than the consequences of individual actions.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Principle: Instead of evaluating the consequences of a single action, you evaluate the utility of the rules that guide actions and follow those rules, believing that adherence to them will lead to overall happiness. ​ Example: Rather than lying in each individual case, rule utilitarianism would argue that honesty is a better rule to follow in the long run because it generally leads to greater happiness and trust in society. ​ What are some criticisms of this form of ethics? Demandingness ​ Criticism: Utilitarianism can be too demanding because it requires individuals to always act in ways that maximize happiness, which could sometimes demand sacrifices that go beyond what most people are willing or able to do. ​ Example: If donating all of one's money to charity could increase overall happiness, utilitarianism would suggest that doing so is morally required, even if it would leave the person in a state of poverty or hardship. b. Injustice and Individual Rights ​ Criticism: Utilitarianism can justify actions that violate individual rights if they lead to greater overall happiness. ​ Example: It might justify sacrificing one innocent person to save a large group (e.g., punishing an innocent person to prevent a riot), which seems morally wrong from a deontological (rights-based) perspective. c. Impossibility of Calculating Utility ​ Criticism: It is difficult or even impossible to accurately calculate the happiness or suffering caused by an action, especially in complex, real-life situations. ​ Example: How do we measure the long-term consequences of an action or predict how different people will experience happiness? d. Neglect of Justice  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ​ Criticism: Critics argue that utilitarianism may overlook justice, as the pursuit of maximum happiness can sometimes lead to unfair or unjust outcomes. ​ Example: It could justify discriminatory practices or inequality if they lead to overall happiness for the majority, even though they harm a minority. e. Lack of Clear Moral Guidance ​ Criticism: Utilitarianism can sometimes offer conflicting advice. For example, the rule that generally maximizes happiness might conflict with an act that maximizes happiness in a particular situation. This can lead to confusion about the right course of action in complex moral dilemmas. Existentialism ​ What are the key ideas of existentialism? -​ Existence precedes essence: Human beings are not born with a pre-determined purpose or essence; rather, they create their own essence through their actions and choices. -​ Freedom and Responsibility: Individuals are free to make choices, but with this freedom comes the responsibility for their actions and their consequences. -​ Absurdity and Meaninglessness: Life does not inherently have meaning, and the universe is indifferent to human concerns. Existentialists confront the "absurd" nature of life and search for personal meaning in an indifferent world. -​ Authenticity: Living authentically means embracing one's freedom, acknowledging the reality of human existence, and making choices in line with one's true self, rather than conforming to societal expectations. -​ Angst/Anxiety: The realization of our freedom and the responsibility that comes with it can lead to feelings of anxiety, dread, and existential angst. ​ What are the two types of existentialism? -​ Atheistic Existentialism: -​ Prominent figures: Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus. -​ This form of existentialism argues that life is inherently meaningless, and there is no God to provide any ultimate purpose or meaning.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW Humans are entirely responsible for creating their own meaning and values in an absurd world. -​ Key idea: Humans must confront the absurdity of existence and create meaning through freedom, choice, and personal responsibility. -​ Theistic Existentialism: -​ Prominent figures: Søren Kierkegaard, Martin Heidegger. -​ This form of existentialism still emphasizes individual freedom and choice but acknowledges the presence of God and divine purpose. While humans face the absurd and must live authentically, their existence is framed within a relationship with God and the search for meaning through faith. -​ Key idea: Existence involves a "leap of faith" — the individual’s subjective relationship with the divine gives life meaning. ​ What does 'existence precedes essence" mean? -​ "Existence precedes essence" is a central tenet of existentialism, particularly associated with Jean-Paul Sartre. -​ It means that human beings do not have a predetermined essence or purpose; we are born first and then create our own essence (or identity) through the choices and actions we make in life. ​ Essence refers to the fundamental nature or purpose of something. ​ Unlike an object like a knife, which is designed with a specific purpose in mind (cutting), human beings are not born with an inherent purpose or essence. Instead, we define ourselves through our actions, decisions, and experiences. Example: A person is not born with a specific identity or meaning; they define their identity through their choices, relationships, and how they engage with the world. ​ How do existentialist view the following: Alienation, Nothingness, Freedom, Anxiety a. Alienation ​ Existentialists view alienation as a feeling of separation or disconnection from the world, others, or oneself.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ○​ Alienation arises from the realization that the world does not inherently provide meaning or purpose, leading to feelings of isolation and estrangement. ○​ Modern society, in particular, can alienate individuals by imposing external values and expectations, making it harder for people to live authentically. b. Nothingness ​ Nothingness refers to the recognition that life is ultimately meaningless, and the universe is indifferent to human existence. ○​ This is closely tied to the idea of the absurd, a term used by Albert Camus to describe the conflict between humans’ desire for meaning and the silent, meaningless universe. ○​ Existentialists believe confronting nothingness or the lack of inherent meaning in life is a fundamental step in creating personal meaning and purpose. c. Freedom ​ Freedom is central to existentialism: humans are fundamentally free to make choices and shape their own lives. ○​ However, this freedom comes with a great burden, as we are responsible for our choices and the consequences of our actions. ○​ True freedom involves the courage to face the uncertainties and absurdities of life and to make authentic, meaningful decisions despite the inherent lack of meaning in the world. ○​ Jean-Paul Sartre emphasizes that humans must act in good faith, accepting that their choices define them and their existence. d. Anxiety ​ Anxiety (or angst) is a fundamental emotion in existentialism. It arises from the realization of one’s freedom and the responsibility that comes with it. ○​ When individuals recognize their ultimate freedom to choose, they also face the existential anxiety that comes from realizing there is no ultimate guide or objective meaning to those choices.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW ○​ Anxiety is not just about fear or worry but a deeper awareness of the "nothingness" of existence — the awareness that life has no inherent meaning, and it is up to the individual to create that meaning. ​ How do we know what we know? -​ Perception: We gather knowledge through our senses—seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling. This is our direct interaction with the world around us, and we often trust what our senses tell us unless there's reason to doubt it. -​ Reasoning: We use logic and critical thinking to make sense of the world. This includes deductive reasoning (drawing conclusions from general principles) and inductive reasoning (generalizing from specific instances). For example, we know things because we’ve observed patterns and derived rules from them. -​ Memory: Our past experiences and the knowledge we’ve accumulated over time are stored in memory. We rely on memory to recall facts, skills, and lessons from the past. -​ Testimony: Much of what we know comes from others, either through books, education, media, or direct communication. We rely on trusted sources to gain knowledge that we haven't directly observed or experienced. -​ Introspection: We know some things through self-reflection—thinking about our own thoughts, feelings, and experiences. This can include knowledge about our desires, beliefs, and intentions. -​ Authority: In many cases, we rely on experts or systems of authority (scientific consensus, religious texts, educational institutions) to guide our understanding, especially in areas where we don’t have firsthand expertise. -​ Intuition: Sometimes, we have a sense or "gut feeling" about something, often based on past experiences or unconscious processing of information. While not always reliable, intuition plays a role in how we navigate complex situations. -​ Empirical Evidence and the Scientific Method: We know things through systematic observation, experimentation, and evidence gathering. The scientific method is a rigorous approach to acquiring knowledge that relies on repeatable experiments and empirical data.  PHILOSOPHY EXAM REVIEW -​