Ancient Greek Philosophers Review PDF

**Sophocles (c. 490 - c. 406 BCE):** - Lived during the height of Athens, especially during the period when the city was leading the Delian League and its wealth was flowing in from dominance in Greek society. - His works, including the famous *Oedipus Rex*, demonstrate a more nuan...

**Sophocles (c. 490 - c. 406 BCE):** - Lived during the height of Athens, especially during the period when the city was leading the Delian League and its wealth was flowing in from dominance in Greek society. - His works, including the famous *Oedipus Rex*, demonstrate a more nuanced view of the gods. - While still pious, Sophocles raised questions about how the gods were acting in human history, providing a more complex view of divine intervention. - *Oedipus Rex* portrays a detective who unknowingly is the murderer he is seeking. The detective and murderer are the same person, highlighting the tragic irony. - Unlike Aeschylus, who saw the gods' interventions as clearly positive, Sophocles was not as confident and expressed doubt and uncertainty, reflecting the broader social shift in Athens during its peak. **2. Euripides (c. 480 - c. 405 BCE):** - Lived during the Peloponnesian War, a period of great conflict between Athens and Sparta. - Euripides was more skeptical of the gods than his predecessors, often depicting them as indifferent or cruel. - In his plays, the gods seem to set humanity up for suffering, and divine intervention is not always portrayed as beneficial. - He focused heavily on exploring the human psyche and often presented well-developed female characters, which was uncommon in the works of earlier playwrights. - Euripides' works engage modern audiences with their psychological depth and their portrayal of inner human struggles. - His skepticism and focus on the complexities of human nature stand in contrast to the more optimistic portrayals of the gods in earlier Greek theater. **Socrates (469-399 BCE):** - Socrates is considered one of the most significant figures in Western philosophy. Although he did not leave any written works, his ideas are known primarily through the writings of his students, particularly Plato. - Socrates is famous for his method of questioning and dialogue, known as the **Socratic method**. He believed that critical thinking and dialogue were essential for discovering the truth, and he encouraged others to question their beliefs and assumptions. - Socrates focused on ethical concepts, such as justice, virtue, and the nature of knowledge. His philosophy was centered on the idea that knowledge is virtue, and he often argued that true knowledge leads to moral behavior. - He was sentenced to death by the Athenian court on charges of corrupting the youth and impiety. He accepted his fate calmly and chose to die rather than compromise his principles.  **Isocrates (436-338 BCE):** - Isocrates was an influential Athenian educator, rhetorician, and writer. Unlike other philosophers, he did not engage in philosophical speculation but focused on the practical application of rhetoric in politics and society. - He believed that rhetoric was a vital tool for achieving success in public life, and he trained many students who went on to influential careers. - Isocrates emphasized the importance of civic virtue, education, and the role of rhetoric in guiding citizens to act in the best interest of their communities. - Although he was a contemporary of Plato and Aristotle, Isocrates had a different approach to education and thought, advocating for the blending of philosophy, rhetoric, and practical experience. - His works have been less influential than Plato\'s but still had a lasting impact on the development of rhetoric and education in Western thought.  **Thucydides (c. 460-404 BCE):** - Thucydides was an ancient Greek historian, best known for writing the \"History of the Peloponnesian War,\" which covers the conflict between Athens and Sparta from 431 to 404 BCE. - Thucydides is often regarded as one of the founding figures of modern history due to his approach to historical writing. Unlike his predecessors, he aimed for accuracy and objectivity, relying on firsthand accounts and evidence rather than myths or legends. - He is known for his critical analysis of the causes and events of the war, offering deep insights into the nature of power, politics, and human behavior. - Thucydides' work is highly regarded for its realistic portrayal of politics, military strategy, and the complexities of war. He explored themes such as the role of chance in history and the moral consequences of war, making his writings essential for understanding both ancient Greek history and political theory. Part IV: - **Hellenistic Context & Origins:** - **Hellenism**: Term derived from the Greek word *Hellen*, used by ancient Greeks to identify themselves. - **Alexander the Great\'s Conquests**: Unified the Greek world, conquered Persia, and extended Greek influence across the Mediterranean and Near East. - After Alexander\'s death, his generals divided the empire into different territories. - **Changes in Greek Society:** - **From City-States to Cosmopolis**: - The ideal of the Greek city-state (polis) where citizens knew each other and were involved in political decisions faded. - Greek society shifted from small, tight-knit city-states to large empires (cosmopolises) where citizens were part of vast, diverse societies. - **Political Shift**: - The democratic model of decision-making in city-states was replaced by **absolute monarchies** led by Alexander's generals and their successors. - Rulers often associated themselves with gods or claimed divinity to reinforce their authority, reflecting a growing skepticism toward traditional religious beliefs. - **Decline of Greek Polis & Rise of Monarchy**: - The direct involvement of citizens in governance was replaced by autocratic rule. - Monarchs and their inner circle formed a political elite, which governed vast regions with minimal input from ordinary people. - **Cultural and Religious Transition**: - **Religion and Divinity**: - Greek rulers adopted a more secular view of gods, often associating themselves with deities to emphasize their power. - Gods were seen as powerful figures from the past, not necessarily divine, and rulers claimed divinity to legitimize their authority. - **Diversity in Hellenistic Societies**: - **Cultural and Ethnic Stratification**: - Greek rulers in territories like **Ptolemaic Egypt** divided society between themselves (the Greek elite) and indigenous populations (e.g., Egyptians). - The Greek-speaking elites retained political and social power, while local populations maintained their distinct cultures and religions. - **Religious Syncretism**: - Greek rulers blended Greek gods with local deities (e.g., Zeus became an Egyptian god), but often kept their cultural superiority intact, refusing full integration into local traditions. - **Challenges of Governance in Diverse Empires**: - Greek rulers had to manage the diversity of conquered peoples, leading to a tension between unity and diversity. - In regions like Egypt, the Greek elites sought to maintain their control by emphasizing cultural differences, even as they incorporated some local religious practices. - **Philosophical and Intellectual Changes**: - **Shift in Philosophy**: - The Hellenistic period saw the rise of philosophical schools like **Stoicism**, **Epicureanism**, and **Cynicism**, which focused on individual freedom and personal development, reflecting a skepticism towards traditional religious views. - These philosophies emphasized the individual\'s relationship with society, offering more personal and practical approaches to life in a diverse world. - **Cultural Fusion**: - The spread of Greek language, arts, and philosophy led to a fusion with local cultures, creating cosmopolitan cities like **Alexandria**, which became intellectual hubs blending Greek and local traditions. - **End of the City-State Model**: - The Greek polis (city-state) system collapsed, giving way to larger, centralized kingdoms with monarchies, such as the **Seleucid Empire** and **Ptolemaic Kingdom**. - Despite Greek dominance, there was a clear distinction between Greek rulers and local populations, highlighting the challenges of governance in a multicultural empire. - **Legacy**: - The Hellenistic period laid the groundwork for the **Roman Empire** and influenced the development of **Christianity**. - The intellectual, cultural, and political shifts during this time had lasting effects on the evolution of Western civilization.  **Hellenism/Hellenistic World**: Refers to the spread of Greek civilization following Alexander the Great\'s conquests, marked by cultural transformation.  **Alexander's Conquest**: Unified Greece and conquered Persia, creating a vast empire. After his death, his generals divided the empire.  **Shift from Polis to Cosmopolis**: Greek city-states (polis) gave way to large, diverse empires. The sense of direct civic involvement in city-states was lost.  **Monarchy**: The ideal of citizen-based governance was replaced by absolute monarchies led by Alexander's generals and their successors. These monarchs often associated themselves with divinity.  **Skepticism**: Rulers adopted a skeptical view of the gods, often seeing them as powerful historical figures rather than divine beings, aligning with Euripides' perspective.  **Diversity**: The Greek rulers faced challenges in managing diverse populations in their empires. In Ptolemaic Egypt, the Greek elite was separated from the indigenous Egyptian population, maintaining distinct identities but blending certain religious practices Lecture 7 **Ionian Revolt (499 BCE):** - The Ionian Revolt was an uprising of the Ionian Greeks against Persian rule. - Athens supported the revolt, which was a direct challenge to the authority of Darius I, the Persian king. - The revolt ultimately failed, but it had significant consequences. - Darius I sought revenge on Athens for its involvement, setting the stage for the Persian invasions of Greece. **Battle of Marathon (490 BCE):** - The Battle of Marathon occurred during the first Persian invasion of Greece, led by Darius I. - The Persian army landed at Marathon, northeast of Athens, intending to subjugate the city. - Despite being outnumbered, the Athenian forces, supported by a small contingent from Plataea, achieved a decisive victory. - This battle demonstrated the effectiveness of Greek hoplite warfare and boosted Athenian confidence, becoming a pivotal moment in Greek history. Part II: - **1. The Delian League** - Formed after the Persian Wars to counter future Persian invasions. - Led by Athens, initially centered on Delos, but Athens soon took control. - Athens used the League's funds to expand its power, turning it into an empire. - Forced states like Naxos to remain in the League, often through force. - **2. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE)** - A conflict between Athens and its allies vs. Sparta and its allies. - Sparked by Athens' rising power and Sparta's fear of an Athenian empire. - Athens suffered a devastating plague and a failed **Sicilian Expedition**. - Persia supported Sparta, leading to Athens' defeat. - After Athens' surrender, Persia benefited the most from the war's outcome. - **he March of 10,000 (401-399 BCE):** - **Context**: A dispute between Persian royal brothers led to the younger brother hiring Greek mercenaries to help him claim the throne. - **Xenophon's Account**: Documented by Xenophon in *Anabasis*. - **Greeks\' Role**: 10,000 Greek soldiers helped the younger brother defeat the older one. - **Leadership Loss**: After losing their leader, the Greeks elected new ones and continued the mission. - **Escape**: With no clear purpose, they formed a cohesive force to escape Persia, marching northward. - **End of Journey**: Endured hardships, crossed mountains, and reached the sea. - **Significance**: Showed Persia's vulnerability and proved the Greeks could defeat them on their own soil. **Alexander the Great (336-323 BCE):** - **Rise to Power**: Became king of Macedon after his father's assassination in 336 BCE. - **Military Genius**: Known for his undefeated record and strategic brilliance. - **Conquests**: Conquered Persia and spread Greek civilization. - **Siege of Tyre**: Built a causeway to reach and conquer Tyre; executed men and enslaved women and children. - **Death**: Died suddenly in 323 BCE, with the cause questioned (fever or poisoning). **Legacy**: After his death, his empire was divided among his generals, continuing the spread of Greek culture